Intelligent Vehicle Technologies ThisPageIntentionallyLeftBlank Intelligent Vehicle Technologies Theory and Applications Edited by Ljubo Vlacic Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia Michel Parent INRIA, France Fumio Harashima Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Technology, Japan OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group First published 2001 © Ljubo Vlacic, Michel Parent and Fumio Harashima 2001 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Intelligent vehicle technologies: theory and applications 1 Motor vehicles – Electronic equipment I Vlacic, Ljubo. II Parent, Michel. III Harashima, Fumio. 629.20549 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Intelligent vehicle technologies/edited by Ljubo Vlacic, Michel Parent, Fumio Harashima. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0 7506 5093 1 1 Automobiles – Automatic control. I Vlacic, Ljubo. II Parent, Michel. III Harashima, Fumio. TL152.8.I573 2001 629.203–dc21 2001025276 ISBN 0 7506 5093 1 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at www.bh.com Typeset in 10/12pt Times Roman by Laser Words, Madras, India Printed and bound in Great Britain Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgements xvii List of Contributors xix Part One: Introduction 1 1 The car of the future – Michel Parent 3 1.1 Such a wonderful product... 3 1.2 Difficulties now and ahead 4 1.3 Emerging technologies 13 Part Two: Intelligent vehicle sensor technologies 19 2 The CAN bus – Nan Liang and Dobrivoje Popovic 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 What is CAN? 22 2.1.2 How does it work? 23 2.1.3 Main features of the CAN bus 24 2.1.4 Advantages of CAN 25 2.1.5 Application fields 25 2.2 Functional concepts 26 2.2.1 Data exchange concept 26 2.2.2 Message and frame formats 27 2.2.3 Error detection and error handling 30 2.3 Hierarchical organization 31 2.3.1 Layering concept 35 2.3.2 Physical layer 37 2.3.3 Data link layer 41 2.3.4 Application layer 48 2.3.5 CANopen communication profile 49 2.4 Implementations 52 2.4.1 General layout 53 2.4.2 CAN controller 53 vi Contents 2.4.3 CAN products 55 2.4.4 HECAN 55 2.5 CAN applications 55 2.5.1 General overview 55 2.5.2 Applications in vehicles 56 2.5.3 Other CAN applications 58 2.6 CAN-related standards 60 2.6.1 ISO 11519: Low speed CAN 60 2.6.2 ISO 11898: High speed CAN 61 2.6.3 Vehicle-related components standards 62 2.7 The future of CAN 62 References 64 3 Microcontrollers and micro-electronic technology – Kurshid Alam and Ljubo Vlacic 65 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Microcontrollers – an embedded microcomputer 65 3.2.1 Address bus, data bus and control bus 66 3.2.2 Central processing unit 66 3.2.3 Memory 68 3.2.4 Input/output (I/O) interface 68 3.3 Microprocessor or microcontroller? 69 3.4 Product design using a microcontroller 70 3.5 Microtechnology 71 3.5.1 Introduction – brief outline of circuit integration 71 3.5.2 The transistor – the active element of integrated circuits 78 3.5.3 Technologies for monolithic chip integration of circuits 82 3.6 Conclusion 85 References 85 4 Vehicle optical sensor – Yuichi Shinmoto 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Laser radar 87 4.2.1 The basic principles 88 4.2.2 Example of laser radar 89 4.3 Non-contact ground velocity detecting sensor 90 4.3.1 Comparison of respective methods 90 4.3.2 The principles of the spatial filter method 93 4.3.3 Ground velocity sensors for vehicles 95 4.4 Road surface recognition sensor 96 4.4.1 Measuring reflexibility 97 4.4.2 Surface recognition by the spatial filter method 98 4.4.3 GVS (ground view sensor) 99 4.5 Vehicle sensors for ETC systems 103 4.5.1 Compact vehicle sensor 104 4.5.2 Optical axle-counting sensor 108 Contents vii 4.6 Conclusion 111 References 111 5 Towards intelligent automotive vision systems – Christoph Stiller 113 5.1 Introduction and motivation 113 5.2 Applications of vision in driver assistance systems 116 5.3 Operating principles 118 5.3.1 Components of a vision sensor system 118 5.3.2 Sensor raw data analysis 118 5.4 Applications and results 122 5.4.1 Autonomous driving 123 5.4.2 Heavy truck coupling 125 5.5 Conclusions 127 Acknowledgements 128 References 128 6 From door to door – principles and applications of computer vision for driver assistant systems – Uwe Franke, Dariu Gavrila, Axel Gern, Steffen Gorzig,¨ Reinhard Janssen, Frank Paetzold and Christian Wohler¨ 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.1.1 Vision in cars: why? 132 6.1.2 One decade of research at DaimlerChrysler 132 6.1.3 A comprehensive driver assistance approach 133 6.1.4 Outline of the chapter 134 6.2 Driver assistance on highways 134 6.2.1 Lane recognition 135 6.2.2 Traffic sign recognition (TSR) 141 6.3 Driver assistance in urban traffic 147 6.3.1 Stereo vision 147 6.3.2 Shape-based analysis 152 6.3.3 Road recognition 157 6.4 Object recognition as a classification problem 161 6.4.1 General aspects 161 6.4.2 Traffic lights and signs 166 6.4.3 Pedestrian recognition 169 6.4.4 Further examples 175 6.5 Building intelligent systems 177 6.5.1 ANTS: a multi-agent system 178 6.5.2 UTA II on the road 182 6.6 Summary 185 References 186 7 Radio communication technologies for vehicle information systems – Shingo Ohmori, Tetsuo Horimatsu, Masayuki Fujise and Kiyohito Tokuda 189 viii Contents 7.1 Introduction 189 7.1.1 Overview 189 7.1.2 Vision for ITS communications 190 7.1.3 International activities for standardization 194 7.2 ITS communication systems 196 7.2.1 Overview 196 7.2.2 Multimedia communication in a car 196 7.2.3 Current ITS communication systems and services 201 7.2.4 The prospect of growing technology 204 7.3 Vehicle–vehicle and road–vehicle communication systems 206 7.3.1 Overview 206 7.3.2 Road–vehicle communication system 206 7.3.3 Inter-vehicle communication system 213 7.4 Device technologies 219 7.4.1 Overview 219 7.4.2 Optical devices 220 7.4.3 Millimetre-wave devices 224 References 227 8 Global positioning technology in the intelligent transportation space – Patrick Herron, Chuck Powers and Michael Solomon 229 8.1 History of GPS 229 8.2 The NAVSTAR GPS system 230 8.2.1 GPS system characteristics 231 8.2.2 The navigation message 232 8.3 Fundamentals of satellite-based positioning 234 8.3.1 The basic science of global positioning 234 8.3.2 Positioning techniques 236 8.4 GPS receiver technology 242 8.4.1 GPS receiver components 242 8.4.2 GPS receiver solutions 244 8.4.3 Performance considerations 247 8.5 Applications for GPS technology 249 8.5.1 Basic positioning applications 249 8.5.2 Location-based services 252 8.6 Conclusion 254 Further reading 254 Part Three: Intelligent vehicle decision and control technologies 257 9 Adaptive control system techniques – Muhidin Lelic and Zoran Gajic 259 9.1 Automatic control of highway traffic and moving vehicles 259 9.2 Adaptive control of highway traffic and moving vehicles 261 9.3 Conventional control schemes 262 9.4 Adaptive control – an overview 264 9.4.1 Gain scheduling 265 Contents ix 9.4.2 Model reference adaptive control (direct adaptive control) 266 9.4.3 Self-tuning control (indirect adaptive control) 266 9.5 System models for adaptive control 267 9.5.1 System identification basics 268 9.5.2 Recursive parameter estimation 268 9.5.3 Estimator initialization 270 9.6 Design of self-tuning controllers 271 9.6.1 Generalized minimum variance (GMV) control 271 9.6.2 Pole placement control 276 9.6.3 Model predictive control 278 9.6.4 Generalized predictive control 279 9.6.5 Generalized pole placement control 281 9.7 Concluding remarks 284 References 284 10 Fuzzy control – Mark Hitchings, Ljubo Vlacic and Vojislav Kecman 289 10.1 Introduction 289 10.1.1 Intelligent control techniques 289 10.1.2 Distance and tracking control – problem definition 293 10.2 Fuzzy control systems – theoretical background 294 10.2.1 Overview 294 10.2.2 Additive fuzzy systems – the standard additive model 297 10.2.3 Fuzzification methods 299 10.2.4 Fuzzy inference methods 301 10.2.5 Defuzzification methods 304 10.3 Fuzzy control systems – design steps 307 10.4 Fuzzy control of distance and tracking 307 10.4.1 Considerations 308 10.4.2 Design strategy 309 10.4.3 System requirements and functions 311 10.4.4 Definitions of linguistic variables 313 10.4.5 System structure 314 10.4.6 Fuzzification method 316 10.4.7 Fuzzy inference rules 321 10.4.8 Defuzzification method 322 10.5 Conclusion 325 10.6 Abbreviations 326 References 327 11 Decisional architectures for motion autonomy – Christian Laugier and Thierry Fraichard 333 11.1 Introduction 333 11.2 Robot control architectures and motion autonomy 334 11.2.1 Definitions and taxonomy 334 11.2.2 Deliberative architectures 335 11.2.3 Reactive architectures 336 x Contents 11.2.4 Hybrid architectures 339 11.2.5 Conclusion 348 11.3 Sharp control and decisional architecture for autonomous vehicles 348 11.3.1 Overview