THE POLICIES AND POLITICS OF MASSIFICATION OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA, 1952-2000 Ogechi Emmanuel Anyanwu A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2006 Committee: Apollos O. Nwauwa, Advisor Kefa M. Otiso Graduate Faculty Representative Robert Buffington Lillian Ervine Ashcraft-Eason © 2006 Ogechi Emmanuel Anyanwu All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Apollos O. Nwauwa, Advisor This study constitutes a history of the policies and politics surrounding the massification of university education in Nigeria between 1952 and 2000. The concept of massification as used in this study refers to a program of expansion of facilities and mass access to university education in post-independent Nigeria. In 1948, the British colonial administration in Nigeria established the first university, the University College of Ibadan (UCI). However, from 1948 through 1959, the British consistently ignored the growing demand for more access to university education. To address this problem, the Nigerian government set up the Ashby Commission to study the country’s higher education needs on the eve of independence. Following the report of the Commission, the Nigerian government realigned university education policies and vigorously embarked on policies of massification. This study shows that the policies and politics of massification were embarked upon largely in response to the critical needs for human resources, economic development, and national integration. Furthermore, it examines how the divergent and, sometimes, inconsistent interests of the pluralistic society of Nigeria, the politics of oil revenue and state creation, the ideologies of civilian/military governments and international forces shaped policy initiatives, shifts, and outcomes of massification. Between 1960 and 1983, successive civilian and military regimes controlled not only university development but also policies of expansion of facilities and access to university education for all Nigerians regardless of class, gender, ethnicity, and creed. iv However, the economic decline of 1983, the intervention of the military in governance, and the implementation of the IMF/World Bank-induced Structural Adjustment Program adversely affected the funding of universities. Consequently, universities facilities deteriorated as the establishment of private universities in the 1980s and 1990s became a welcome innovation. From 1959 to 2000, the number of universities increased from 1 to 45 while student enrolment concomitantly rose from 939 to 526,780. This study is not merely a history of how universities were founded in post-independence Nigeria but it is about how the formulation and implementation of official policies on human resource development, economic advancement, and national integration are linked to the politics and drama of massification of university education. v To the blessed memory of my mother, Patience Anyanwu. Your absence is ever present in my life. I love you. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to deeply and sincerely thank God for his steadfast love and grace and for blessing my efforts beyond the level of my original expectation in spite of the obstacles and frustrations that I faced during my research and writing. My very special thanks to the one person whom I owe everything that I have achieved today, my father, C.U. Anyanwu. I am indebted to him for his unwavering faith and confidence in my abilities, which has shaped me to be the person I am today. Thank you, Dad. I am also eternally indebted to Fabian Ohaegbu for his friendship. Fab has been a part of every good thing that has happened in my life. His extraordinary inspiration, love, and prayers during my research and writing greatly facilitated the successful of this work. Fab, I am lucky to have you in my life; no one could ask for a better friend in life than you have been to me. I also owe a special note of gratitude to Professors T.O.C. Ndubuizu, A.G. Anwukah, U.D. Anyanwu, C. Akujor, Aja Akpuru Aja, B.E.B. Nwoko, Mr. John Cliff Nwadike, and Sir Lucius Ehieze for inspiring me to pursue an academic career, and to Professors M. Alugbuo, C.B.N Nwachukwu, and Dr. Life Njoku, for enabling me to do so. I am appreciative and thankful for the support of my dissertation chair, Dr. Apollos Nwauwa, for helping me to realize my dream of studying in the United States, and for his generous time and commitment which led to the early completion of my doctoral work. I am grateful for his extremely perceptive, useful, and apt comments on my dissertation drafts. For everything you’ve done for me, Dr. Nwauwa, I thank you. I am also blessed and exceptionally grateful for having a wonderful doctoral committee and wish to thank Dr. Robert Buffington, Dr. Kefa Otiso, and Dr. Lillian Ashcraft-Eason vii for their extraordinary dedication to my work, and for having confidence in me even when I doubted myself. By setting high academic standards and continually stimulating my analytical thinking and research skills, they have helped me to develop my abilities as a critical, independent, and constructive scholar and teacher, able to respond to the challenges of life in a realistic and dynamic manner. While working on my dissertation, I profited a lot from the inspiring companionship of Michael Kithinji, a colleague in the history department. Besides supporting me during the writing phase of this work, Michael was present on my defense day to support me to the end. This dissertation would not have been possible without the emotional and social support from him. Thank you, Mick. I extend many thanks to Dr. Raphael Njoku, Dr. Chima Korieh, and Dr. Ebere Onwudiwe for providing me with immense support and encouragement throughout the period I spent on my research and writing. Also, I sincerely acknowledge the tremendous impact of Dr. L. Djisovi Ikukomi Eason on my life from 2003 when enrolled in Bowling Green State University to 2005 when he passed on. Djisovi had a way with people. You always leave his presence feeling good about yourself. It’s sad that he did not live to witnesses the completion of my doctoral work, but I hope he understands how much I appreciate him. The research that produced this work was conducted largely due to the indispensable and generous awards of graduate fellowship (2003-2006), non-service fellowship (fall 2005), and research grant (fall 2006) by the history department, coupled with a research grant by the Katzner and University Bookstore in fall 2005. I am deeply grateful to them! In addition, I thank the staff of the National Universities Commission, Committee of Vice-Chancellors, National Archives (Ibadan and Enugu), Federal Ministry viii of Education, Arewa House, Kaduna, and Office of Statistics, Lagos, for cooperating with me during the months I invested collecting data for this project in Nigeria. A special note of thanks to Dr. Adize Anyanwu, Mr. Taiwo and Mrs. Chioma Irechukwu; you eased the pain associated with my research trip in many ways, and I am indebted. I am equally thankful to Emma Okoroafor and Chukuwma Njoku for sharing the burden of sorting out many dusty documents and helping me to photocopy them. During the three years I spent on my doctoral studies, God blessed me with many wonderful people such as DeeDee Wentland, the graduate secretary. DeeDee constantly made me feel special all the time, treated me like her brother, and provided much needed humor and entertainment in what could have otherwise been a somewhat stressful journey. Knowing her has made me a better person. Thank you, DeeDee. Same goes for Tina Amos, the department secretary, for going out of her way to assist and guide me. Many people on the faculty of Bowling Green State University assisted and encouraged me in various ways during my course of studies. I gladly extend my thanks to Dr. Liette Gidlow, Dr.Walter Grunden, Dr. Gary Hess, Dr. Andrew Schocket, Dr. Scott Martin, Dr. Peter Way, and Dr. Candace Archer. Thank you all. I also thank my friends in Bowling Green who made me laugh always: Camille Rogers (alias CH), Seneca Vaught, Sheila Jones, Maria Baldwin, Jennifer Potocnak, and Thomas Nathan. Also, I specially acknowledge Chukuwdi Amankem, my very good friend. It’s sad that you did not live to see this day for me. You will forever live in my mind. I love you! May your soul rest in peace! Finally, and most importantly, I would also like to thank my wife, Chidinma, and my two daughters, Uchechi (my mum’s incarnate), and Ozioma, for their love, understanding, and endurance during the many months I spent working on this project. ix Special thanks for other members of my family for believing in me and contributing in many ways towards this success: Chijioke, Nkeiru, Uzoma, Hanna, Zachary, Edith, Chucks, Favor, Chidinma, Rita and Gordy Okengwu, Uchenna, Kene, Mode, Charles Ukanwa, and Chibunkem Uwaezuoke. x TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER I. BACKGROUND TO POST-COLONIAL MASSIFICATION OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA, 1952-1959………………….. 11 CHAPTER II. HUMAN RESOURCE NEED, ASHBY COMMISSION, AND THE FIRST WAVE OF MASSIFICATION, 1959-1969……………………... 56 CHAPTER III. CENTRALIZATION AND EXPANSION OF UNIVERSITIES FOR MASS ACCESS AND NATIONAL UNITY, 1970-1979……………….. 112 CHAPTER IV. THE 1979 CONSTITUTION, QUOTA SYSTEM, AND POLITICS OF FREE EDUCATION, 1979-1983………………………………………. 164