he Heritage of Environmentalism DARYL C. STUHR vance") have been the deeds of those whose enlight- ened concern was aroused long before Earth Day-in some cases, generations before. The American en- vironment has had its champion since colonial times; and, of course, they increased in number with the growth of the country itself. Before the effects of a large population and an in- tense technology became major environmental prob- lems, the main concern ecologically was that of con- Orr= IGNORED in the secondary-schooland col- TO servation. Although most people in the early history lege study of environmental issues is the historical Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/2/68/8705/4444223.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 of America looked upon background of these and related matters. The fol- this country's natural re- sources as lowing account is by no means intended to be a com- inexhaustible, a few thought otherwise. Some steps were taken in colonial plete history of conservation and environmental con- times, especially in the control of timber use. Laws cern in this country; however, it may provide some against the burning of forests were initial insights into the historical aspects and may in- passed by several New England colo- nies before 1650. In 1681 William Penn decreed troduce or recall some of the men and women who that for every five acres cleared of forest, one acre of tim- were forerunners deserving recognition. I include a ber should be set aside. Unfortunately. his ordinance list of books and articles to which interested students and others like it were largely ignored. can refer for more information about the human As early as 1652 restrictions were imposed on the drama relating to nature. harvesting of fish from eastern streams, in attempts to improve the dwindling fishery stocks. However, the The Need for Perspective settlers did not recognize another hazard to aquatic life: the many grist mills, which dammed and pol- Whatever else happened as a result of Earth Day luted the waterways. There were also laws to protect 1970-most of it necessary and good-one could not a few kinds of animals, especially deer, and some help but notice some disappointments. these Among birds; but, as with forest protection, these laws were was the self-righteous pride some took in being part nearly impossible to enforce, because of inadequate of this new cause the assumption that they were public support. among the first to recognize the problem and hence After colonial settlement a heavy toll was taken had the right to condemn in all directions. of the soil by agriculture. One of the first leaders to Environmental improvement must begin with con- give serious consideration to soil conservation was cerned people, and information is especially impor- Thomas Jefferson, on his Virginia plantation. He cor- tant in matters of concern. The environmentalist responded with George Washington and other lead- Huey D. Johnson (1969) said, "Knowledge and un- ing farmers of the day. These men promoted scien- derstanding are the nuts and bolts of succeeding at tific practices, including crop rotation, use of fertili- anything." This also means knowledge of what has zers, deep plowing, and contour plowing. Graham happened in the past; that is, the historical develop- (1971) points out that "George Washington and ment of the problem. An appreciation of the efforts Thomas Jefferson cautioned their compatriots against of persons preceding the present time certainly con- the destructive land practices that left many of the tributes to greater understanding and knowledge. great tobacco estates of Virginia in ruins." Jefferson's Perhaps too much neglected in the study of en- concern seemed to be more than simply economic or vironmental problems (partly in the name of "rele- utilitarian. Lyndon B. Johnson has reminded us, "Thomas Jefferson wrote that communities 'should The author teaches biology at Illinois Valley be planned with an eye to the effect made upon the Community College, Oglesby, Ill. 61348. A human spirit by being continually surrounded with 1952 graduate, in botany, of Iowa State Uni- a maximum of in versity, with master's degrees from Drake beauty"' (quoted Nash, 1968). University and the University of South Da- Around the beginning of the 19th century an in- kota, he is much interested in the history terest in wildlife for reasons other than exploitation of biology as well as environmental studies began to appear. Two men in particular became al- and conservation. He taught science in the most professional observers of birds: Alexander Wil- Woodward and Sac City, Iowa, high schools~ I son (serving for a time as the principal of the Woodward school) and John James Audubon. Wilson, an immigrant from 1952 to 1968, and he received the Outstanding Biology from Scotland, became the first great American orni- Teacher Award for Iowa in 1967. thologist. He published the first volume of his Ameri- 68 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, FEBRUARY 1973 can Ornithology in 1808. Audubon is, of course, most famous as a painter of birds, but he also wrote about them, and he initiated bird-banding to study migra- tion. Both these men in their later years worried about the possible extinction of certain birds and other wildlife, and they sought protection for those being senselessly slaughtered and hunted on too large a scale. Early-Day Attitudes Before further considering aspects of the develop- ment of ideas on the conservation of natural resources and of ideas on environmental quality in general, we should take a look at why the need for such a move- ment arose. Only very recently have historians at- tempted to account objectively for today's environ- mental situation. Much blame has been cast during Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/2/68/8705/4444223.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 the current crisis, but with little understanding of the background. Clepper (1966) expresses it well when he says, "Although modern conservation prin- ciples are widely understood, the evolution of the movement is not. Even among the corps of practicing conservationists, a lack of historic perspective is often evident in their writings and policies. It follows that any person concerned with conservation, whether as a professional worker, interested layman, or student, will benefit by a grounding in the history of the land and its resources, and the influences that resulted in the establishment of the several fields of resource management." Probably the most common scapegoat is science Henry David Thoreau (1817-62) and technology. But this represents an over-simplified and short-sighted view. Many recent historical com- dition does not, in fact, encourage exploitation of the mentaries go beyond the technologic factors, how- world's riches and beauty. One example of opposition ever, and suggest that the whole problem is an exten- to Lynn White's contention is the conviction of Mich- sion of the Judeo-Christian religious tradition. Ac- ael Hamilton (1970) that "our religious heritage cording to Lynn White (1967), "Science and tech- brings considerable insight to bear on the problems nology, commonly blamed for the present dilemma, engendered by man's carelessness and technology's are but outgrowths of Christian man's early explora- power." tion of God's handiwork and his exploitation of God- Clepper (1966) also writes, "When settlement of given power and dominion over all the world." what is now the United States began early in the sev- Roderick Nash (1968) concurs. He says, ". the enteenth century, most of the people who came here Judeo-Christian tradition taught that as a result of a did so because of their dissatisfaction with economic, gift from God the natural world belonged to man for social, and political conditions in their homeland. The his exploitation." From Genesis it followed that "the conditions had been aggravated because most of the environment existed solely for the satisfaction of people were denied use of the land and its resources, man's immediate desires. The first Americans much of which was in the hands of nobility and the stood squarely on this tradition. ... A massive as- wealthy. ... In America the vast wilderness pre- sault was directed on the New World environment in sented a challenge to early settlers. It was something the name of civilization and Christianity. Progress to be subdued, and the need for protecting it was not became synonymous with exploitation. The an early concern of the colonists." This contains a strength of individualism and competitiveness in the certain irony: people who had always been denied American value system supported the pioneer's in- land and its resources were not, after settling in sistence that the land he owned could be used as he America, protectively appreciative of it. Clepper con- willed. The long term interest of society made little tinues, "The vastness of America's resources was difference." first, and most authentically, revealed by the reports Others have written similarly; and they assert that of the Lewis and Clark expedition to the Pacific this tradition is still a major influence. In contrast, Northwest in 1805. So abundant as to be considered however, is the even more recent view, held by a inexhaustible, the resources were free to all who number of theologians, that the Judeo-Christian tra- could take them. Often the chronological pattern was, HERITAGEOF ENVIRONMENTALISM69 first, utilization; next, exploitation; and finally in the out the West. While there in 1832 he wrote his obser- case of some species, extermination." vations for a New York newspaper, and in one of So, although hindsight tempts us to be critical of these eloquent accounts he proposed a national park the naivete of this exploitation pattern, we should in which some of nature's wildlife and beauty would heed Nash's words, "Conservation historians would be preserved.