University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2002 Can legislation deliver conservation?: an assessment of the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) using two threatened plant species as case studies Claire Louise Brown University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Brown, Claire Louise, Can legislation deliver conservation?: an assessment of the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) using two threatened plant species as case studies, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, 2002. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1038 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] CAN LEGISLATION DELIVER CONSERVATION? An assessment of the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) using two threatened plant species as case studies. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy from the UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by CIAIRE LOUISE BROWN, B.Sc. (HONS)-B.A. DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES and FACULTY OF LAW November 2002 DECLARATION I, Claire Louise Brown, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Biological Sciences and the Faculty of Law, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Claire L. Brown 11th November 2002 Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS page no. List of Tables I List of Figures IV List of Plates (Photographs) Vlll Abstract x Acknowledgments XIV SECTION A Chapter 1: General Introduction 1.1 Biodiversity 1 1.1.1 The Impact of Agriculture 3 1.1.2 The Impact of Urban Development 3 1.1.3 Threatened species in New South Wales 6 1.1.4 Overall review of conservation paradigms 7 Vegetation Corridors 9 Translocation of Species 11 1.2 Policy, legislation and management instruments 12 1.2.1 The role of local government 13 1.3 Importance of the science/law interface 15 1.3.1 The role of scientific uncertainty and the precautionary principle 16 1.4 Specific Aims 21 1.5 General outline of methodology for the study as a whole 21 SECTIONB Chapter 2: Legislating for biodiversity using the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Legislating for Conservation in New South Wales 26 2.3 The Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) and Environmental Planning andAssessmentAct 1979 (NSW) Part 4 32 2.3.1 Listing 32 2.3.2 Eight Part Test 35 2.3.3 Species Impact Statements 36 2.3.4 Other elements of the legislation 40 2.4 Two case studies 41 2.4.1 Eight part test (Green Road, Glenhaven) 42 2.4.2 Species Impact Statement (Aquatic Drive, Allambie Heights) 42 2.5 Conclusions 43 Chapter 3: Case Studies 3.1 Introduction 44 Methodology 49 3.2 Aquatic Drive, Allambie Heights (33Q40'30"S 151 Ql4'20"E) 50 Table of Contents 3.2.1 Vegetation attributes of the site 50 3.2.2 The development 54 3.2.3 The issues 55 Identification and presence of Tetratheca glandulosa 55 Ardel Limited v Warringah Council (No. 10606of1994 NSWLEC) 55 Hassell Pty Ltd v Warringah Council (41NSWLEC1998) 58 Hassell Pty Ltd v Warringah Shire Council (49 NSWLEC 2000) 60 Consultation with Council and with National Parks and Wildlife Service 60 Monitoring programme 62 3.2.3 Analysis 62 3.2.4 Outcomes 64 3.3 Green Road, Glenhaven (33Q42'S, 150Q157'E) 64 3.3.1 Vegetation attributes of the site 64 3.3.2 The issues 67 Eight part test and Species Impact Statement 67 National Parks and Wildlife Service concurrence and Council consultation 67 Development Controls 69 Monitoring Programme 69 3.3.3 Analysis 69 3.4 Carnarvon Drive, Frenches Forest 72 3.4.1 Vegetation attributes of the site 72 3.4.2 The development 74 3.43 The issues 74 Species Impact Statement 74 National Parks and Wildlife Service concurrence and Council consultation 77 Development Controls/Conditions of Consent 78 Monitoring Programme 78 3.4.3 Analysis 78 3.5 Grosvenor Street, North Wahroonga (33Q42'S, 151Q07'30"E) 79 3 .5 .1 Vegetation attributes of the site 81 3.5.2 The development 82 3.5.3 The issues 82 Zoning issues 82 Peter William Lean v Ku-Ring-Gai Council (No. 10457of1996 and 40265 of 1996) 82 3.5.3 Analysis 85 SECTIONC Chapter 4: Species Biology And Site Descriptions 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Tetratheca glandulosa Smith 89 4.2.1 Taxonomic Description 89 4.2.2 Recovery Plan Status 94 4.3 Darwinia biflora (Cheel) B. Briggs 94 4.3.1 Taxonomic description 94 Table of Contents 4.3.2 Recovery plan status 98 4.4 Site descriptions 98 Chapter 5: Pollination Biology of Tetratheca glandulosa and Darwinia biflora 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2Aims 110 5.3 Materials and Methods 110 5.3.1 Determination of the breeding system 110 5.3.2 Seed fitness (weight and length) 113 5.3.3 Pollinator identification 113 5.3.4 Test for clonality in Tetratheca glandulosa 115 5.4 Results 117 5.4.1 Determination of the breeding system 117 Percentage offlowers setting viable fruit 117 Seed development 119 5.4.2 Seed length and weight 123 5.4.3 Pollinator identification 125 5.4.4 Test for clonality in Tetratheca glandulosa 125 5.5 Discussion and Conclusions 127 Chapter 6: Pollination Success of Tetratheca glandulosa and Darwinia biflora. Association with fragmentation. 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2Aims 134 6.3 Materials and methods 134 6.3.1 Flowering and fruiting densities 134 6.3.2 Pollinator behaviour and pollen removal 135 Pollinator visits 135 Pollen removal 136 6.4 Results 137 6.4.1 Flowering and fruit densities 137 Flower intensities 137 Fruit."flower ratio 139 6.4.2 Insect visitation and pollen removal 142 Visits 142 Pollen removal 144 6.5 Discussion and Conclusions 144 Chapter 7: The viable seed store for Tetratheca glandulosa and Darwinia biflora (The hidden science). 7.1 Introduction 150 7.2Aims 151 7.3 Materials and Methods 152 7.3.1 Seeds of Tetratheca glandulosa found in the soil 152 7.3.2 Estimation of annual inputs to the seed banks 154 7.3.3 Seed germination 156 7.3.4 Seed dormancy 157 7.4 Results 160 Table of Contents 7.4.1 Seeds of Tetratheca glandulosa found in the soil 160 7.4.2 Estimation of annual inputs to the seed banks 161 7.4.3 Seed germination 161 7.4.4 Seed dormancy 164 7.4 Discussion and Conclusions 166 SECTIOND Chapter 8: General discussion 8.1 Introduction 170 8.2 Summary of thesis 171 8.3 When scientific uncertainty exists and how is it dealt with? 174 8.3.1 Tetratheca glandulosa (Aquatic Drive, Allambie Heights) 174 8.3.2 Darwinia bif/,ora (Green Road, Glenhaven) 175 8.4 How could the legislation be improved? 177 8.4.1 Recovery planning 179 8.4.2 Incorporating the precautionary principle into decision-making 184 8.4.3 Adaptive management 185 8.4.4 Improved pathways for decision-making in Local Councils 188 References 192 Appendices Appendix 2.1 History of the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW) 219 Appendix 2.2 Contents of recovery plans 222 Appendix 5.1 Sonication (buzz) pollination 223 Appendix 5.2 Pollen library 225 Appendix 8.1 An examination of recovery plans which have been written for listed threatened species 226 List of Tables I LIST OF TABLES page no. Table 1.1: Summary of the number of species listed on the Threatened Species ConservationAct 1995 (NSW). 6 Table 1.2: Summary of the parks system in N.S.W., showing the different categories. 8 Table 1.3: History of wildlife conservation state legislation in New South Wales 14 Table 1.4: There are many different classifications of scientific uncertainty and the sources it originates from (Source Deville & Harding 1997). 20 Table 1.5: Summary of specific questions in the study and how each question was approached. 22 Table 2.1: An eight part test determines if a significant effect will occur from a proposed development or activity upon a listed species. 37 Table 2.2: Species Impact Statements provide a site assessment for a development or activity in relation to threatened species. 39 Table 3.1: Ecological communities represented on the site found at Aquatic Drive, Allambie Heights. 53 Table 3.2: Summary of the SIS and outcomes for the population of Tetratheca glandulosa at Aquatic Drive, Allambie Heights. 61 Table 3.3: Summary of the Eight Part Test and outcomes for the population of Darwinia biflora at Green Road, Glenhaven. 68 Table 4.1: There are summary of characteristics of the threatened plant species in the Sydney region, which have been considered during the decisions on development consent. 88 Table 4.2: Known and unknown ecological attributes of and threats to Tetratheca glandulosa. 95 Table 4.3: Known and unknown ecological attributes of and threats to Darwinia biflora. 99 Table 4.4: Descriptions, population size and management options for sites that are conserved in National Parks or Council Reserves. 101 Table 5.1: Selected studies between 1986-2000 (taken from a variety of sources), showing a variety of preferred mating systems found in Australian flora. 107 List of Tables n Table 5.2: The number of individual plants used at each site for Tetratheca glandulosa and Darwinia biffora for pollen supplementation and pollinator exclusion experiments.