FOLLOWING THE STONE: ZIMBABWEAN SCULPTORS CARVING A PLACE IN 21ST CENTURY ART WORLDS BY LANCE L. LARKIN DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology with a minor in African Studies with a minor in Museum Studies in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Alma Gottlieb, Chair Professor Matti Bunzl Associate Professor Theresa Barnes Krannert Art Museum Curator Allyson Purpura ABSTRACT This dissertation follows the historical trajectory of the products of Zimbabwean stone sculptors to examine the interplay between international art markets and the agency of the artists themselves. Although this 1960s arts movement gained recognition within global art circuits during the colonial era – and greater acclaim following independence – by the turn of the 21st century only a few sculptors were able to maintain international success. Following the depreciation on the markets, I ask: (1) for what reasons do international art buyers now devalue Zimbabwean stone sculpture after having valorized it in the 1960s-80s? (2) How do Zimbabwean artists react to these vicissitudes of the international art markets? In the first half of the dissertation I examine how the stone sculpture was framed by European patrons as a Modernist art that valorized indigenous beliefs in contrast to the Rhodesian colonial regime’s oppression. Following independence in 1980, the movement continued to be framed as a link to pre-state carving traditions – solidifying links with “tradition” – while the political economic situation in Zimbabwe began to deteriorate by the end of the 1990s. The combination of changing political climate and changing market forces led to a decline in the fortune of the artists, as international galleries cast the movement as “derivative,” by the turn of the 21st century. The downturn in upscale market interest provides a focus in the latter half of the dissertation as I ethnographically examine how sculptors have reacted to these circumstances. Although some artists distanced themselves from the sculpture “movement” and gained relative success, many sculptors rely on travel to South Africa as migrant workers to sell artwork for a ii pittance to tourists. By grounding my research in the struggles of artists as they negotiate the vicissitudes of international art markets, I assert that historical and political factors constrain the efforts of sculptors—illustrating a turn from the colonial Modernist era which highlighted the collective identity of oppressed peoples, to a post-independence period in which individual achievements are celebrated within the nation-state. As the governments of both Zimbabwe and South Africa threaten singular artists who question the power of the state, my research suggests that international art worlds continue to value artwork that threatens the status quo, but now in terms of easily sanctioned individuals, while masses of artists are relegated to the margins of the neoliberal order. iii To Jerry and Patricia Larkin iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A project like this is many years in the making and filled with unanticipated challenges. Without the love and understanding of my family I could have never completed this project. A special Thank you goes to my wife, Donna Tonini-Larkin, who provided a variety of support and encouragement for each unique period of challenge. Following the frustrations of getting to this point, through an upbringing that impacted this project from start to finish, I am extremely grateful to my parents, Jerry and Patricia Larkin for their patience and assistance. The care of family cannot be overemphasized, and adopted family had an equal role in helping us through the research portion of my work. Thank you, Lucy Thornton and family, for providing physical and emotional sustenance, especially in the love you showed to our son, Aidan. The intertwining of long-term support through the intellectual debts of productive conversation is hard to separate, but it is safe to say that many scholars have touched and impacted this project over the years. Conversations with Tegan Bristow, Michael Chibnik, Jean Comaroff, John Comaroff, Jane Desmond, Virginia Dominguez, Janet Keller, Shannon Morreira, Helaine Silverman, Christopher Steiner, and Jonathan Zilberg have all encouraged productive lines of thought. The most challenging and fruitful conversations came from the members of my committee, to whom I am highly indebted for the intellectual curiosity that you engendered with your questions. Allyson Purpura provided early commentary to clarify my argument, which prompted revision on the grant that put me in the field, and which I hope has resonated within the dissertation. Clarification also sprang from Theresa Barnes’ prodding me into a rich historical depth that will continue to have great impact on future projects. Matti Bunzl encouraged exploration into the intersections of African arts and Euro-American art worlds, v leading to considerations that will fuel my next research. From deliberations about where to go from here all the way back to my start as a graduate student, this project would not be what it is without the constant support of Alma Gottlieb. As an advisor she facilitated professional, technical, and personal support that sustained me through a host of challenges. The assistance of collaborators in the field was critical for this project, which spanned a decade, and a few countries. Many thanks to the support staff at the National Gallery of Zimbabwe for the institutional assistance. Additionally, the productive conversations with Director Doreen Sibanda and Curator Raphael Chikukwa allowed me to push well beyond my thoughts based on my first visit to Zimbabwe in 2001. The librarian at Johannesburg Art Gallery, Jo Burger, provided a phenomenal job of finding resources and opened up the world of southern African art. The arts of the region were most clearly articulated by the artists and practitioners themselves. Without their assistance I could not have seen this project through to fruition— extreme thanks to Tom Blomefield, Celia Winter-Irving, Bernard Matemera, Dominic Benhura, Raphael Mavudzi, Robert Murengwa, Whyson Chiredzero, Richard Roodt, and Kudzanai Chiurai. The friendship and support of these artists was also reflected in the contact with many Zimbabweans who were willing to open their homes and share their culture with a stranger. To the Muduvanhu, Tongoona, Jakachira, and Chizano families, maita basa. With a limited amount of space, it is impossible to thank all the artists, vendors, gallery owners, and curators who assisted, but you are often in my thoughts. While fieldwork is important, the assistance from the always-helpful staff at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign’s Anthropology Department, Karla Harmon, Elizabeth Spears, and Julia Spitz, kept me on track, and often out of the quagmire of institutional vi bureaucracy. Complementing the formal support of the department were the personal connections that made the graduate experience truly worthwhile. Many thanks to Timothy Landry, Nicole Tami, Angela Glaros, Junjie Chen, Sophia Balakian, Benjamin Skousen, and Robert Michael Atienza for being friends and colleagues. To those I have not listed, you can be sure that I am grateful for your friendship and support during graduate school. Additionally, I am very appreciative of Prof. Adrienne Lo’s patience and assistance during the final push to finish the dissertation. My research was generously funded by a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship, as well as three awards from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign – Nelle M. Signor Study Abroad Scholarship from International Programs and Studies, Cognitive Science / Artificial Intelligence Award from the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, a Department of Anthropology Summer Research Award, and a Baldwin Scholarship. The latter was provided for research in 2001 at the University of Washington, and was facilitated by encouragement from Clarke Speed and Miriam Kahn. Thank you for getting me started on this very productive journey. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………..…………………………………1 CHAPTER 2: “ART AS BEGGING”: ZIMBABWEAN SCULPTORS’ HISTORICAL DILEMMA…………...............................................................................................…34 CHAPTER 3: POST-INDEPENDENCE MARKETS: THRIVING OPPORTUNITIES AND NEGOTIATING AUTHENTICITY………………………………….........…..61 CHAPTER 4: VICISSITUDES OF THE ART MARKET: THE POLITICS OF ZIMBABWE AND ART ON THE MOVE..……………….………………..…….…93 CHAPTER 5: SCULPTURE IN SOUTH AFRICA: TOURIST TRINKETS IN THE MARKETPLACE………………………………………………………..…….…….133 REFERENCES CITED………………………………………………………………………166 APPENDIX A: LIST OF ACRONYMS...…………………………………………………...207 APPENDIX B: FIGURES………………………………………………………..……….....208 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION After independence, our people were given the opportunity to assert themselves freely and openly, expressing the best of their souls. This was already possible for the artists because the plastic images had always existed in them. If they preceded and accompanied the struggle for independence and liberty, it is because the artists are always the precursors of history. And the phenomenon, admired in all the continents of the world, is something like the anthem of our freedom, and remains now at the centre of the renaissance of our culture