The ACE Encyclopaedia: Media and Elections The media are essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible without media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote and the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process where voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties, policies, candidates and the election process itself in order to make informed choices. Furthermore, media acts as a crucial watchdog to democratic elections, safeguarding the transparency of the process. Indeed, a democratic election with no media freedom, or stifled media freedom, would be a contradiction in terms. THE ACE ELECTORAL NETWORK AND THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA The ACE Electoral Knowledge Network is the world’s first online resource of its kind in the field of elections and the world’s largest repository of electoral knowledge, providing more than 10,000 pages of specialized thematic information, country and region specific information, comparative data, a global election calendar, the latest electoral news and events, and the real time knowledge services and exchange through the ACE Practitioners Network. The website is available in Arabic, English, French, Russian and Spanish versions. The ACE Encyclopaedia is comprised of 13 topic areas that cover key steps of the electoral cycle in depth. (This series presents each of these topic areas in print.) ACE Electoral Knowledge Network publications are independent of specific national or political interests. Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network or its Partners. To access the online Encyclopaedia and for more information, please visit www.aceproject.org Copyright 1998-2013 © ACE Electoral Knowledge Network Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of this publication should be made to: ACE Electoral Knowledge Network Email: [email protected] Booklet Information: Media and Elections First Published: 1998 Revision Number: 3 Updated: 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. OVERVIEW OF MEDIA AND ELECTIONS - THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MEDIA TO ELECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 ROLES THE MEDIA PLAY IN ELECTIONS .................................................................................................... 9 2. OVERVIEW OF MEDIA AND ELECTIONS - THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MEDIA TO ELECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 11 2.1 ROLES THE MEDIA PLAY IN ELECTIONS .................................................................................................. 11 2.2 MEDIA AS WATCHDOG ............................................................................................................................ 13 2.3 MEDIA AS A CAMPAIGN PLATFORM ......................................................................................................... 14 2.4 MEDIA AS OPEN FORUM FOR DEBATE AND DISCUSSION/ PUBLIC VOICE ................................................. 15 2.5 MEDIA AS PUBLIC EDUCATOR ................................................................................................................. 16 2.6 GENDER, MEDIA AND ELECTIONS ............................................................................................................ 16 2.7 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................ 20 3. THE MEDIA LANDSCAPE TODAY ................................................................................................. 22 3.1 WHERE DO PEOPLE GET THEIR INFORMATION? ...................................................................................... 22 3.2 MEDIA LITERACY .................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3 RADIO ...................................................................................................................................................... 28 3.4 TELEVISION ............................................................................................................................................. 29 3.5 PRINT....................................................................................................................................................... 31 3.6 NEW MEDIA ............................................................................................................................................ 32 3.7 MEDIA OWNERSHIP AND ELECTIONS ....................................................................................................... 44 3.7.1 Public Media: State, Government and Public Service Broadcasting ............................................ 50 3.7.2 Private and Corporate Media ....................................................................................................... 52 3.7.3 Community Media ......................................................................................................................... 54 3.7.4 Party and Politician-owned Media ............................................................................................... 55 3.8 MEDIA SAFETY ........................................................................................................................................ 56 3.9 [XII] GRACE NATABAALO, “UGANDA FALLS DRAMATICALLY IN PRESS FREEDOM RANKINGS” .............. 61 3.10 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT MEDIA .................................................................................. 61 3.10.1 Media Ownership and Elections ............................................................................................... 61 3.10.2 "New" Media ............................................................................................................................ 61 3.10.2.1 Cellular Telephones and Election Campaigning .................................................................................. 61 3.11 EXISTING MEDIA REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS .................................................................................. 62 4. LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND ELECTIONS .............................................................. 62 4.1 LEGAL PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................................................. 62 4.2 INTERNATIONAL LAW ON MEDIA AND ELECTIONS .................................................................................. 63 4.3 MEDIA AND DEMOCRACY ........................................................................................................................ 66 4.4 OBLIGATIONS OF PLURALISM .................................................................................................................. 67 4.5 FREEDOM OF POLITICAL DEBATE ............................................................................................................ 69 4.6 RIGHT OF ACCESS TO GOVERNMENT MEDIA ........................................................................................... 70 4.7 PUBLISHING OPPOSITION VIEWS.............................................................................................................. 72 4.8 RIGHT OF REPLY TO MEDIA REPORTS DURING ELECTIONS ...................................................................... 73 4.9 LIMITS TO LIABILITY OF MEDIA DURING ELECTIONS .............................................................................. 75 4.10 RESTRICTIONS ON POLITICAL SPEECH ................................................................................................ 76 4.11 CRITICISM OF POLITICIANS AND GOVERNMENT .................................................................................. 76 4.12 RIGHT TO AN EFFECTIVE REMEDY ...................................................................................................... 77 4.13 PROTECTING THE SAFETY OF THE MEDIA ........................................................................................... 78 4.14 WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN THE DRAFTING PROCESS? ................................................................. 81 4.15 A SPECIFIED CAMPAIGN PERIOD? ....................................................................................................... 82 4.16 PROVISIONS THAT AFFECT BOTH PRIVATE AND PUBLIC MEDIA ......................................................... 84 4.17 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM FOR MEDIA AND ELECTION REGULATIONS ....................................... 85 4.18 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM: EXISTING MEDIA REGULATORY BODY ............................................ 85 4.19 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM: MEDIA SELF-REGULATION .............................................................. 86 4.20 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM: ELECTORAL COMMISSION ............................................................... 87 4.21 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM: ELECTIONS MEDIA COMMISSION ..................................................... 88 4.22 IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM: JUDICIARY ....................................................................................... 89 4.23 COMPLAINTS PROCEDURE ON MEDIA COVERAGE ............................................................................... 90 4.24 NEWS BLACKOUTS ............................................................................................................................