ARTICLE IN PRESS Environmental Hazards 6 (2005) 115–122 www.elsevier.com/locate/hazards The importance of traditional fire use and management practices for contemporary land managers in the American Southwest Carol Raisha,Ã, Armando Gonza´lez-Caba´nb, Carol J. Condiec aUSDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Albuquerque, NM 87102-3497, USA bUSDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Riverside, CA 92507, USA cQuivira Research Associates, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA Abstract Indigenous and traditional peoples worldwide have used fire to manipulate their environment for thousands of years. These long- standing practices still continue and have considerable relevance for today’s land managers. This discussion explores the value of documenting and understanding historic and contemporary fire use attitudes and practices of the varied cultural/ethnic groups that interact with land managers concerning fire and fuels management in the American Southwest. Current research with historic records and present-day communities is reviewed. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Indigenous/traditional fire-use practices; Indigenous/traditional attitudes toward fire; Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK); Contingent valuation method (CVM) 1. Introduction and practices of the varied cultural/ethnic groups that interact with land managers concerning fire and fuels From Australia to North America indigenous peoples management in the Southwestern area of the US. For have used fire as a tool to manage their environment for purposes of this review, we focus on the states of Arizona multiple reasons, from the religious to the utilitarian. In and New Mexico, which correspond to the Southwestern what is now the United States (US), anecdotal evidence Region of the United States Forest Service. This generally strongly points toward the widespread ‘‘yoccurrence of arid region of desert, high chaparral, and mountain ranges fire in the pre-European landscapey’’ (Stanturf, 2002, has an extremely long history of Native American p. 2). Our natural environment is a result of all the forces of occupation, extending back over 10,000 years. It was first the past, including the use of fire by our ancestors. Many colonized by the Spanish at the end of the 16th century and ancient fire-use practices have been passed down for became part of the US with the close of the Mexican generations, but increasing population, shrinking available American War in 1848. For historical reasons, Spanish open space, and modern environmental concerns often American (Hispano) and Native American traditions clash with these traditional fire uses (Langton, 1999; remain strong in the area. Thus, this type of research is Stanturf, 2002). Harmonizing indigenous uses of fire with particularly important in the Southwest owing to the large today’s environmental rules and regulations, as well as with number of distinct cultural groups with long histories of societal fears of wildfire, is a major challenge. fire use, which shape their present-day practices, attitudes, In this paper we discuss the value of examining and and interactions with land management agencies. understanding historic and contemporary fire-use attitudes Many Native American groups, as well as Hispano and Anglo-American farmers and ranchers, have important bodies of traditional ecological knowledge regarding using ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 505 724 3666. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Raish), fire to create desired ecosystem effects in their local areas [email protected] (A. Gonza´lez-Caba´n), (Boyd, 1999). These can be of considerable benefit to land [email protected] (C.J. Condie). managers. In addition, substantial amounts of land 1464-2867/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.hazards.2005.10.004 ARTICLE IN PRESS 116 C. Raish et al. / Environmental Hazards 6 (2005) 115–122 belonging to indigenous and traditional peoples1 are Additionally, these past practices influence the way groups located in proximity to lands controlled by the US federal view and use fire in the present. As presented here, ‘‘fire government. Management practices on federal lands can use’’ refers to specific uses of fire such as encouraging wild affect those in non-federal ownership and vice versa. Large, seed production or clearing agricultural fields. ‘‘Fire landscape-scale management projects encompassing lands management’’ is used more generally to describe the ways under a variety of ownerships are increasingly desirable as different cultures deal with both wild and intentionally set means of treating significant areas, such as watersheds. fires at a broader, landscape level. For discussions of both Implementing these multi-ownership projects often re- of these topics, see the works of Langton (1999), Blaney quires considerable cultural sensitivity and knowledge of (1999), and Andersen (1999) in Australia, and Stewart the attitudes and fire-use practices of the distinct groups (1955a, b), Lewis (1973, 1985), Dobyns (1981), Pyne (1982, who own or manage the land. An absence of this 1995), Anderson (1993), Kay (1994), and Williams (2000, understanding has led to conflict between land manage- 2002a, b) in North America. In an effort to encompass the ment agencies and adjacent communities, resulting in full extent of literature reviews and syntheses on these projects that are delayed or not completed (Raish et al., topics, unpublished works are discussed. This is especially 1999). the case for the Southwest, where less research has been For example, many indigenous and traditional peoples undertaken than in other areas. In some cases, unpublished maintain special uses and sacred places on public forests information is listed in conjunction with a published paper and grasslands in the Southwest. Legal requirements and because the unpublished information presents the full agency policies mandate that public land managers consult bibliography and source discussions. with indigenous and traditional groups to make sure their Williams (2002a, b) and Pyne (1982, 1995) have reviewed views concerning fire use and management on and near extensively Native American use of fire and support the these sites are considered. Responding to social justice view that burning by indigenous groups has modified concerns in 1994, President Clinton signed Executive Order landscapes across the continent. Dobyns (1981), Kay 12898, which requires federal agencies to understand the (1994), Lewis (1973, 1985),andStewart (1955a, b) also impacts of their projects and policies on different cultural stress the importance of human-caused fires in altering pre- groups to ensure that these groups do not bear the brunt of fire-suppression era ecosystems. In contrast, early Eur- the possible negative impacts of proposed programs or opean explorers and settlers often attributed the evidence actions. Despite these mandates, land managers may plan of pre-contact fires to natural causes owing to the absence projects that do not adequately consider special use sites of written records. Many contemporary scientists studying and sacred areas out of ignorance. This ignorance often pre-European-settlement fire evidence also tend to attribute stems from an inability to obtain the appropriate informa- most prehistoric fires to natural causes. Allen (2002) makes tion, resulting in a lack of knowledge concerning the ways an especially strong case for the primary role of natural in which indigenous and traditional groups use fire and causation in the form of lightning ignitions in the upland view the impacts of fire on special use areas. Ignorance Southwest; other useful treatments of this topic are of the information and how to collect it can lead to presented by Fish (1996), Swetnam and Baisan (1996), misunderstandings and conflict that harm agency-commu- and Touchan et al. (1996). The present discussion does not nity relations and interfere with project implementation. focus on the issue of natural versus human causation for Developing fair, realistic, and effective methods of historic-era, landscape-scale burning, but emphasizes a consulting with Native American and traditional peoples review of the available literature on known indigenous and is discussed in detail in Raish et al. (1999). traditional uses of fire in the Southwest, which has had considerably less review coverage than other geographic areas (Allen, 2002). 2. Status of research on fire use, management practices, and There are both primary and secondary accounts that attitudes of indigenous and traditional peoples describe purposeful burning by Native Americans in various parts of North America to promote diversity of 2.1. General research on historical use of fire habitats and resources, environmental stability, predict- ability, and maintenance of ecotones (Lewis, 1985; There is a developing body of research concerning Williams, 2002a, b). These purposeful fires can differ from historical fire use and management practices of indigenous natural fires on the basis of seasonality (season of burning), and traditional peoples around the world. This research frequency, and intensity. Groups burned in the late spring can provide valuable information to contemporary land before new growth appeared and, in drier areas, in late managers who are now working on these same lands. summer or early fall prior to the main winter growth period (Lewis, 1985; Williams, 2000, 2002b). 1 For purposes of this discussion, the term ‘‘indigenous’’ is used to refer In a 1973 study, Lewis (1973) listed 70 reasons for Native to