The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng 幽溪傳燈 (1554-1628) Yungfen Ma Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2011 © 2011 Yungfen Ma All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng 幽溪傳燈 (1554-1628) Yungfen Ma This dissertation is a study of Youxi Chuandeng’s (1554-1628) transformation of “Buddha-nature includes good and evil,” also known as “inherent evil,” a unique idea representing Tiantai’s nature-inclusion philosophy in Chinese Buddhism. Focused on his major treatise On Nature Including Good and Evil, this research demonstrates how Chuandeng, in his efforts to regenerate Tiantai, incorporated the important intellectual themes of the late Ming, especially those found in the Śūraṃgama Sūtra. In his treatise, Chuandeng systematically presented his ideas on doctrinal classification, the principle of nature-inclusion, and the practice of the Dharma-gate of inherent evil. Redefining Tiantai doctrinal classification, he legitimized the idea of inherent evil to be the highest Buddhist teaching and proved the superiority of Buddhism over Confucianism. Drawing upon the notions of pure mind and the seven elements found in the Śūraṃgama Sūtra, he reinterpreted nature-inclusion and the Dharma-gate of inherent evil emphasizing inherent evil as pure rather than defiled. Conversely, he reinterpreted the Śūraṃgama Sūtra by nature-inclusion. Chuandeng incorporated Confucianism and the Śūraṃgama Sūtra as a response to the dominating thought of his day, this being the particular manner in which previous Tiantai thinkers upheld, defended and spread Tiantai. What set Chuandeng apart from his predecessors were his efforts to harmonize rather than criticize other Buddhist schools. The Śūraṃgama Sūtra was emblematic of the syncretic intellectual trend of the late Ming and its popularity was widespread. Chuandeng ably took ideas from the Śūraṃgama Sūtra to make his points. Chuandeng was a culminator and innovator of nature-inclusion and his thought and activities represent the revival of Tiantai in the late Ming. This study proves that the Tiantai school was not a marginal but rather an active contributor to the overall revival of Buddhism in the late Ming. TABLE of CONTENTS List of Diagrams ii Acknowledgments iii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Part I Chuandeng and the Development of Nature-inclusion Thought Chapter 2 Chuandeng’s Life 19 Early Life 20 Monastic Training and Teachers 22 The Revival of Gaoming Monastery 28 Activities to Revive Tiantai 37 Chapter 3 Zhiyi’s “Buddha-nature Includes Good and Evil” Thought 47 Buddha-nature 47 Buddha-nature Includes Defilement and Purity 52 Zhiyi’s Main Philosophical Framework 54 What is Good and Evil 61 Inherent Good and Inherent Evil 63 The Dharma-gate of Inherent Evil 68 Chapter 4 The Development of Nature-inclusion Thought from the Tang to the Yuan: Zhanran, Zhili and Huaize 76 Jingxi Zhanran 荊溪湛然 (711-782) 76 Siming Zhili 四明知禮 (960-1028) 83 Huxi Huaize 虎溪懷則 (fl. 1310) 94 Chapter 5 The Śūraṃgama Sūtra and Late-Ming Buddhism 103 An Introduction to the Śūraṃgama Sūtra 104 The Increasing Influence of the Śūraṃgama Sūtra from the Tang to the Mid-Ming 110 The Śūraṃgama Sūtra and Late-Ming Syncretism of the Three Teachings 116 The Śūraṃgama Sūtra and Late-Ming Buddhist Syncretism 124 Part II On Nature Including Good and Evil Chapter 6 Doctrinal Classification 138 The Worldly Teaching 139 The Supra-mundane Teaching—The Five Periods 157 Chapter 7 Chuandeng’s Theory on the Principle of Nature-inclusion 178 The First Gate: In Unchanging Suchness the Ten Realms are Hidden 179 i The Second Gate: When Suchness Follows Conditions, the Ten Realms Become Differentiated 187 The Third Gate: The Unchanging Follows Conditions, the Non-differentiated Is the Differentiated 196 The Fourth Gate: Following Conditions yet without Change, Differentiated yet Non-Differentiated 215 Chapter 8 Chuandeng’s Theory on the Practice of the Dharma-gate of Inherent Evil 227 The Fifth Gate: In the Causal Mind All Is Orginally Included and Nothing Is Lacking 228 The Sixth Gate: At the Stage of Fruition within the Perfect Realization, Nothing Has Changed 233 The Seventh Gate: When Perfectly Practicing by Following Pure Conditions, the Entirety of Practice Rests in Nature 251 The Eighth Gate: Following Pure Conditions to Reach Perfect Realization, Lifting One Thing and All Are Gathered within 269 Chuandeng’s Conclusions 272 Chapter 9 Conclusion 280 Bibliography 292 LIST of DIAGRAMS Diagram 1 192 Diagram 2 192 Diagram 3 192 Diagram 4 192 Diagram 5 192 Diagram 6 192 Diagram 7 193 Diagram 8 193 Diagram 9 193 Diagram 10 193 Diagram 11 193 Diagram 12 193 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I offer my deepest respect to the Buddha, whose profound teachings carried me throughout the process of writing this dissertation. I am greatly indebted to my monastic order, Chung Tai Chan Monastery, for the support provided me in every aspect during my studies. My most sincere gratitude goes to my master, Ven. Wei Chueh, who constantly enlightens me spiritually. I thank my advisor, Dr. Chün-fang Yü, for she is the embodiment of the title of one of her works, Guanyin, the bodhisattva of compassion. Her insight, expertise and industrious attitude toward study have impacted my life and her continuous and timely responses to my questions were always given with heartwarming encouragement. I would like to thank Dr. ZhongWei Wu for his invaluable understanding on Tiantai thought and Dr. Jiang Wu for his helpful insights on Ming Tiantai. I am also grateful to Dr. Robert Thurman for his guidance and support throughout these years. A special thank you to Dr. Bernard Faure and Dr. Wendi Adamek for their helpful advice on my research. Thanks also to Dr. Micheal Como for his lighthearted conversations. To my Columbia friends and colleagues, your gracious friendship has been an important source of inspiration for me to continue my work. I deeply appreciate the editorial assistance of Hernan Lavin, Liz Whiteford, Bessie Yu and Marilyn Wetmore. To Hernan, thank you for your selfless, tireless and patient editorial work. The completion of this dissertation is owed to your careful persistence and unequivocal faith in Chuandeng’s teaching. This work is dedicated to all sentient beings, including my family, with the hope that they will soon realize their true nature. iii 1 Chapter 1 Introduction My dissertation is a study of the Tiantai concept of “nature-inclusion” (xing ju 性具) as developed by Youxi Chuandeng 幽溪傳燈 (1554-1628), particularly in his work On Nature Including Good and Evil (Xin shan e lun 性善惡論). Chuandeng, a prominent Buddhist monk, is traditionally honored as “the patriarch who revived the Tiantai school during the Ming dynasty.” His creative reinterpretation of “nature-inclusion,” a distinctive Tiantai understanding of Buddha-nature, played an important part in the revival of seventeenth century Tiantai Buddhism. Mainly based on the analysis of his treatise, I will discuss the intellectual influences that led to his innovative interpretation. Particular attention will be given to the influence the Śūraṃgama Sūtra (one of the most important texts in later Chinese Buddhist history) had on Chuandeng’s thinking. A Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Tiantai has had a major impact on East Asian Buddhism in general. It is the first Buddhist school to originate in China rather than in India. Indian Buddhism came to China two thousand years ago and, by the sixth century, the Chinese were introduced to a wide range of theories and practices of Indian Buddhist schools. It was not until the appearance of Tiantai during the Sui and Tang dynasties that Chinese Buddhism started to form an independent character. Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597), considered the founder of Tiantai, created his own doctrinal system that marked a new phase in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Tiantai also influenced, in varying degrees, later Chinese Buddhist schools such as Huayan, Chan (Japanese: Zen), and Pure Land. The significant influence of Tiantai thought is not limited to Chinese Buddhism but also extends to East Asian Buddhism. Tiantai teaching soon spread to 2 Japan and Korea and later became the Tendai school and the Cheontae school, founded by Saichō (767-822) and Uicheon (1055-1101) respectively. Both schools also impacted the indigenous religions of Japan and Korea. Tendai, in particular, exerted great influence on Japanese culture, as Paul L. Swanson states, “I was struck by the almost ubiquitous influence of the T’ien-t’ai/Tendai tradition in Japanese religion, culture, and history.”1 Without a doubt, Tiantai thought is not only one of the leading philosophical systems in Chinese Buddhism but also a major contributor to world intellectual history. Based on a central Buddhist scripture, the Lotus Sutra, Zhiyi proposed a multidimensional and comprehensive system of thought. It is well-known for a variety of concepts such as the Doctrinal Classification (pan jiao 判教), known as the “Five periods and Eight Teachings” (wu shi ba jiao 五時八教)2, a system used to classify the various types of teachings preached by the Buddha at different times of his life. Other concepts such as the “Threefold Truth of Perfect Interpenetration” (yuan rong san di 圓融三諦)3, the 1 Swanson, Foundations of T’ien-Tai Philosophy, x, 155. 2 The Five Periods refer to the chronological division of the Buddha’s teachings and the eight teachings refer to the division according to method and doctrine. The five periods are: (1) Avataṃsaka period (Huayan shi 華嚴時) (2) Āgama period (Ahan shi 阿含時) (3) Vaipulya period (Fangdeng shi 方等時) (4) Prajñā period (Bore shi 般若時) (5) Lotus and Nirvāṇa period (Fahua niepan shi 法華涅槃時).