Reaching for Divinity The role of Herakles in relation to dexiosis Florien Plasschaert Utrecht University RMA ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, AND RENAISSANCE STUDIES thesis under the supervision of dr. R. Strootman | prof. L.V. Rutgers Cover Photo: Dexiosis relief of Antiochos I of Kommagene with Herakles at Arsameia on the Nymphaion. Photograph by Stefano Caneva, distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license. 1 Reaching for Divinity The role of Herakles in relation to dexiosis Florien Plasschaert Utrecht 2017 2 Acknowledgements The completion of this master thesis would not have been possible were not it for the advice, input and support of several individuals. First of all, I owe a lot of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Rolf Strootman, whose lectures not only inspired the subject for this thesis, but whose door was always open in case I needed advice or felt the need to discuss complex topics. With his incredible amount of knowledge on the Hellenistic Period provided me with valuable insights, yet always encouraged me to follow my own view on things. Over the course of this study, there were several people along the way who helped immensely by providing information, even if it was not yet published. Firstly, Prof. Dr. Miguel John Versluys, who was kind enough to send his forthcoming book on Nemrud Dagh, an important contribution to the information on Antiochos I of Kommagene. Secondly, Prof. Dr. Panagiotis Iossif who even managed to send several articles in the nick of time to help my thesis. Lastly, the National Numismatic Collection department of the Nederlandse Bank, to whom I own gratitude for sending several scans of Hellenistic coins. Furthermore, I had an incredible amount of support of my fellow students, friends and family, with whom I have overcome many obstacles. To Leonore, whose help with the layout and eye for detail managed to spot the tiniest of inconsistencies. To Anna and Lotte, who have had the patience to listen to many of my ramblings and always stood ready with a piece of advice. All three of them helped me to overcome loss of confidence in my work or abilities by giving encouraging talks. To my parents, who always supported me in following my heart and stood ready with cups of tea and latte macchiato’s. Most importantly, to Harry, whose ability to always cheer me up or diminish my stress levels has helped me through numerous difficult moments of the Research master. Without his unwavering support, love and patience I would not have been able to come as far as I have. 3 Contents Introduction 5 Description of the Kommagenian sites 12 Part I: Dexiosis and its symbolism in ancient art and texts 15 1.1 Dexiosis in the Ancient Near East 17 1.2 Dexiosis in Ancient Greek culture 21 1.3 Dexiosis in Greek funerary art 25 Part II: Herakles in the ideology of Hellenistic Rulers 31 2.1 Makedonian Empires 34 2.2 Later Hellenistic Kingdoms 46 Part III: Synthesis 54 Conclusion 61 Appendix 62 Bibliography 63 4 Introduction In the late Hellenistic period the power of the Seleucid kingdom was waning, creating opportunities for other rulers and dynasties to rise to power. One of these, Antiochos I of Kommagene, left an impressive and intriguing assemblage of architecture and sculptures behind. These sculptures and buildings were part of a larger ideological programme of the ruler, spread throughout the kingdom, visible for everyone. Particularly important for this study, are a set of reliefs on which Antiochos himself is depicted shaking hands, a gesture known as dexiosis, with three different deities: Zeus- Oromasdas, Apollo-Mithras-Helios-Hermes and Artagnes-Herakles-Ares (henceforth: Zeus, Apollo and Herakles). The reliefs are a unique portrait of a Hellenistic ruler interacting with gods, meant to communicate a specific message. The reliefs were placed at the famous tomb of Antiochos at Nemrud Dagh, one of the highest mountains in the Taurus range. In addition to this there were several smaller cult locations spread out through the kingdom, all of which contained the reliefs of Antiochos shaking hands with Apollo, Herakles, or both, often located at the entrance of these sites. On several of the reliefs an inscription is added on the back which tells us the specific names of the three deities. The repetition at the different locations and the peculiar gesture are not the only aspects to make these reliefs interesting, the typical style used for the visualisation of Antiochos and the deities clearly show influences of different cultures. We see Antiochos wearing official Iranian styled attire whereas Apollo and Herakles are depicted in a Greek style, fully nude and with their attributes. Understanding the message that Antiochos tried to communicate with these reliefs would be a valuable insight in the use of ideology in the late Hellenistic period, and the use of different cultural styles. The aim of this study is to find out what the role of Herakles is in relation to dexiosis on the reliefs of Antiochos. Two aspects of the relief are key to a better understanding of what Antiochos tried to communicate. Firstly, the gesture of dexiosis; shaking hands is a well-known gesture in our day, but has ambiguous connotations and it symbolises different things in different situations. In Antiquity, this was no different and, to explore what different meanings dexiosis could have, a wide range of sources will be discussed. The gesture is visualised in artworks such as reliefs and vase paintings, and textual sources which use the term dexiosis. Secondly, the addition of a fully Greek Herakles amongst the rest of the gods is rather interesting, on the one hand because of the Greek stylistics, and on the other the choice of this specific deity along with Zeus and Apollo. To understand the selection of Herakles by Antiochos, our perspective must broaden to several other Hellenistic rulers and their ideology as we have no further evidence from Kommagene of the hero being worshipped there. Comparisons with other rulers are an indication of Hellenistic perspectives on the hero. Sources on the ideology of rulers can be deduced from artworks or texts issued by rulers themselves, forming a direct connection to what the ruler saw as important. However, there are many works which are produced by others, concerning the rulers. These sources give information indirectly but are just as important as they represent a more general view of how the ideology was reproduced and interpreted by the rulers’ subjects. There have been several studies on the ideological programme of Antiochos, although most only fleetingly mention the dexiosis stelae. Zeus, Apollo and Herakles are all taken together, said to be portray an image of divine aid and Antiochos’ apotheosis. Whereas the deities Zeus and Apollo 5 have a clear connotation with Hellenistic kingship, Herakles’ role is less certain. Zeus, as king of the gods, claimed supremacy through overcoming difficult battles such as defeat of his father Kronos, the wars with the Titans, Giants and Typhon.1 The myths of Zeus in which he earns his sovereignty through victories appealed greatly to Hellenistic kings and employed the king of gods to endorse their own supremacy.2 Kingship sanctioned by Zeus is well attested in the Theogony, describing that kings come from Zeus, while the in the Iliad Odysseus says: ‘great is the anger of kings nourished by Zeus: their honours come from Zeus, and Zeus the Counsellor loves them.’3 A later view on the relation between Zeus and kings is given by the Hellenistic poet Kallimachos, in his hymn to Zeus. In the hymn Kallimachos describes that kings owe their position to Zeus of whom none are more divine.4 Rulers showing that Zeus supported their position thus formed a strong legitimisation in the form of divine support. The Persian god Oromasdes is the supreme god of the heavens, similar to Zeus. Apollo, initially an evil averting god, was associated with the sun-god Helios in later times. A sun-deity in relation to kingship was associated with passing legislation and distributing justice, a corresponding characteristic with the sun-gods of the Ancient Near-East.5 What then, is the role of Herakles? Argued by Herman Brijder to form a role-model for bravery, valour and strength, corresponding to the characteristics of the Artagnes and Ares who are both gods of war. Artagnes-Herakles-Ares is thus seen as a role-model for warfare.6 On the aspect of dexiosis, The visualisation of the gesture between a ruler and gods are unique which makes the symbolism more difficult to interpret. The thorough study of Bruno Jacobs and Robert Rollinger, whose views will be discussed in the last chapter, are of particular value to gain a deeper understanding. Interestingly, previous studies looking at reliefs have either looked only at dexiosis, or only at the presence of the gods; they have never been thoroughly studied in combination with each other. Yet, in my opinion, it the combination of the two that enables us to interpret the relief and its message. Before we can look at the relief specifically, a short summary of the historical background of Antiochos’ dynasty and his ideological programme is necessary as to understand the context the stelea were created in. Historical background The history of the region of Kommagene is shrouded in mystery as there are very few sources available to us. The past of the kingdom is reconstructed as follows: Stemming from a small Syro- Hittite kingdom, it was annexed by Assyria as a province in 708 BC under Sargon II.7 During the 6th century, when the power of Assyria was waning, the region was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire and remained so until the arrival of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century.