UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY Sensitive Nonlinear Laser-Based Spectroscopic Studies of Chemical and Biological Agents for Biomedical and Security Applications A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry by Marcel Michael Hetu Committee in charge: University of California, San Diego Professor Timothy S. Baker Professor Judy E. Kim San Diego State University Professor William G. Tong, Chair Professor Christopher R. Harrison Professor Roland Wolkowicz 2015 Copyright Marcel Michael Hetu, 2015 All rights reserved The dissertation of Marcel Michael Hetu is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Chair University of California, San Diego 2015 iii DEDICATION To my family and friends who have supported me throughout my education iv TABLE OF CONTENTS SIGNITURE PAGE ........................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................................................v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................xv VITA ............................................................................................................................... xvii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ........................................................................ xix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1 1.1 Laser-Based Analytical Chemistry ........................................................1 1.1.1 The Basics of Lasers ..................................................................1 1.1.2 Sensitive Laser-Based Analytical Methods .............................11 1.1.3 Laser Systems for Security Applications .................................20 1.1.4 Laser Systems in Biomedical Technology ...............................21 1.2 Nonlinear Laser Spectroscopy .............................................................22 1.3 Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing ...........................................................23 1.4 Dissertation Outline .............................................................................27 1.5 References ............................................................................................28 CHAPTER 2 THEORY ....................................................................................................31 2.1 Nonlinear Laser Wave-Mixing Spectroscopy ......................................31 2.1.1 Interference Pattern ..................................................................32 2.2 Laser-Induced Grating Formation........................................................34 2.2.1 Population Gratings .................................................................34 2.2.2 Induced Thermal Gratings .......................................................35 2.2.3 Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing Signal ....................................37 2.2.4 Forward-Scattering Four-Wave Mixing Signals in Liquids ....40 2.3 References ............................................................................................43 CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION ....................................................................44 3.1 Forward-Scattering Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing Optical Geometry..........................................................................................................44 3.2 Laser Sources .......................................................................................48 v 3.2.1 Passively Q-Switched Ultraviolet Laser ..................................48 3.2.2 Visible-Spectrum Diode Laser Systems ..................................49 3.2.3 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Laser .................................49 3.2.4 Laser Systems for Laser Wave Mixing ....................................50 3.3 Sample Cells ........................................................................................51 3.3.1 Capillary Fibers ........................................................................51 3.3.2 “Liquid-Sandwich” Quartz Cell ...............................................53 3.3.3 Capillary Electrophoresis .........................................................53 3.4 References ............................................................................................56 CHAPTER 4 LABEL-FREE DETECTION OF SMALL MOLECULES IN MICROFLUIDICS AND ON SURFACES USING UV LASER WAVE MIXING FOR SECURITY AND BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS .......................................................57 4.1 Abstract ................................................................................................57 4.2 Introduction ..........................................................................................58 4.3 Experimental ........................................................................................63 4.3.1 Wave-Mixing Detector for Capillary Electrophoresis .............63 4.3.2 Chemicals and Reagents ..........................................................64 4.4 Results and Discussion ........................................................................67 4.4.1 Detection of Nitroaromatic Compounds in a Capillary ...........67 4.4.2 Detection of Neurotransmitters in a Capillary ...................74 4.4.3 Detection of TNT Samples on Surfaces...................................82 4.5 Conclusions ..........................................................................................88 4.6 Acknowledgements ..............................................................................90 4.7 References ............................................................................................90 CHAPTER 5 SIZE-BASED SEPARATION AND DETECTION OF CELLULAR PROTEINS BY LASER WAVE MIXING SPECTROSCOPY AND CAPILLARY ELECTROPHORESIS .......................................................................................................93 5.1 Abstract ................................................................................................93 5.2 Introduction ..........................................................................................93 5.3 Experimental ......................................................................................100 5.3.1 Wave-Mixing Detector for Protein Capillary Electrophoresis ...................................................................................100 5.3.2 Chemicals and Reagents ........................................................101 vi 5.3.3 Protein Labeling .....................................................................103 5.4 Results and Discussion ......................................................................104 5.4.1 Protein Labeling .....................................................................104 5.4.2 Separation Conditions ............................................................106 5.4.3 Optimization of Protein Separation .......................................112 5.4.4 Wave-Mixing Signal and Detection Limits ...........................120 5.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................123 5.6 References ..........................................................................................127 CHAPTER 6 DETECTION OF HIV-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS AND ANTIBODIES BY DEGERNATE FOUR-WAVE MIXING ..................................................................130 6.1 Abstract ..............................................................................................130 6.2 Introduction ........................................................................................130 6.3 Experimental ......................................................................................136 6.3.1 Wave-mixing Detector and Capillary Electrophoresis for HIV Capsid and Antibody Detection .........................................................136 6.3.2 Chemicals and Reagents ........................................................138 6.3.3 Protein Labeling .....................................................................139 6.4 Results and Discussion ......................................................................140 6.4.1 Detection of ELISA Products by Laser Wave Mixing ..........140 6.4.2 Antigen Labeling Using Chromophore and Fluorophore Protein Tags 142 6.4.3 Size-Based Separation and Limit of Detection for HIV-1 p24 Capsid Using FITC ............................................................................145 6.4.4 Size-Based Separation and Limit of Detection for HIV-1 p24 Capsid Using QSY 35 ........................................................................149 6.4.5 Nonlinear Dependence of Wave-Mixing Signal in p24 Separations .........................................................................................152 6.4.6 Reaction of p24 with Monoclonal and Polyclonal Antibodies Monitored by Laser Wave Mixing .....................................................152