;; , Place-names(geographical names) on and off the coast of Western Norway: Names of oil fields compared to traditional place-names Botolv Helleland (Professor, University of Oslo, NO/way) 1. Introduction. The aim of this paper is to investigate the function and structure of two totally different place-name systems: traditional place- names along the Norwegian coast and the names of oil fields off the coast. The question raised is in which way and to which extent do the two types differ. Do the differences have any implications as to national and international communication on the one hand and the preservation of the cultural heritage on the other hand? 2. Name function and name meaning A place-name (geographical name, name of a topographic feature) is a monoreferential linguistic expression whose task is to identify a tOJX)graphic feature and to distinguish it from another topographic feature in a given linguistic context. It serves, with other words, as an address or a label. When a place-name is used. within a group of competent language users the name will, when it is mentioned, bring the same topographic feature to mind. A more complicated question, which will not be discussed in detail here, is to which extent a name avokes the same connotations to different users of the name. Certainly the answer depends on the background of the name users and how familiar they are with the n~e in Question and its reference. Language philosophers like John Stuart Mill and John Searle have discussed the matter from two different approaches the fonner claiming «the Genuine Reference Theory» as the correct understanding of a name's function (a , name has no meaning beyond its reference), whereas the second is defending «the Genuine Reference Theory» or «Cluster Theory », saying that the meaning of a name cannot be expressed in general tenns; instead one has to count on a group of meanings (clusters or criteria) which are represented in the name, and that those criteria may change over time, however without a fundamental - 8 - change of the meanmg. From this point of view of a traditional island name as Alden 'the high one' (related to Latin altus 'high') does not only mean 'a specific island' to the language users along the Norwegian coast, but also for instance 'island with a characteristic ,shape', 'island situated in dangerous waters', ' island where I passed my childhood' etc. The connotations of a name may change from one person to another, but there are clusters of connotations that are shared by larger groups of the name users. Applied to the names of oil , fields one may say that a person who works offshore has partly a different :c;- understanding of a field name than has his wife back home. However, most of -j, the Norwegians think of oil and gas exploitation and even of the country I s increasing revenue when the name Troll is mentioned. Although there may be some dispute about the range of connotations attached to the use of names, we may agree that when a place~name is established in the lexicon (onomasticon) of the language users it functions independently of the semantic relation between the name and the name bearer, although transparent names as for instance Oksen 'the ox' and Straumen 'the current, stream' to a certain degree combines the lexical meaning with the identifying function of the name. However, principally a name does not need to mean the same thing as it is refers to, a fact which is clearly demonstrated by the naming of oil fields. 3. Principles of traditional name giving When there is need of a new place-name, the traditional coining principle is that the name givers notify one or several topographic or other Qualities of the feature in Question, such as fonn. size, colour, material etc and express those Qualities in relevant linguistic tenns. Some times it may be difficult to reiterate the naming motives as the natural circumstances of the feature may have changed. Our naming fathers notified details which we do not see with our modern eyes. Examples of traditional names along the Norwegian coast are Huglo 'the high one (island) ' , related to German Hllgel 'hill', Kinn, d. Old Norse kinn 'cheek, steep mountain side' (mountain, island), cf. also Nordkinn 'the Northern cheek'. In some names the Qualities of the feature are expressed through comparison (metaphors) with non- topographic words as Olesen 'the ox', Segiet 'the sail'. In other cases a special event may have given rise to the name, for instance Nordlenciingen, meaning 'a person from the North of Norway', used as the name of a skerry on which a ship from the North of -9 - ...................................................................r .. ~ - I Norway was wrecked. A major part of the oldest names are simplexes or simplexes extended through derivation as in the island name S tolmen (d. *stel 'standing, stiff') and in the fjord name Sogn (d. Old Norse stJga 'suck', referring to the currents), '.' whereas most younger names are compounds with a specific which specifies or modifies the content of the generic, for instance through relation, d. Bokna/ior-den 'the fjord at the [island] Boko' , natural circumstances, ct. Askvoll ,; 'the meadow with ashtrees', human activity, ct. HerfZ1)la 'the island where the war ship anny used to gather'. The same name giving principles are applied to undersea features such as sunken rocks and fishing grounds. for instance Storegga 'the big edge' . Seigrunnen ' the coalfish ground'. Also in our days place-names are coined as descriptive expressions, but , increasingly another principle has been put into use, namely by introducing word categories which have no semantic relation to the feature in question. This applies to a greater part of the names of oil fields in the North Sea, for instance Teme 'sea- swallow' (names of birds), Odin (mythologic god), Troll (gnom, fairy tale figure). Such names are often concentrated by motive groups, like street names often are, an arrangement which contributes to the address function of the names. As isolated. expressions they give no meaning as far as the name bearer is concerned, but they do so contextually. Besides, modern navigation technology makes it less necessary to read the name as a description of the name bearer. I shall return to the name categories of the oil fields below. 4. Place-name typology 4.1. Traditional Norwegian place- names Traditional Norwegian place- names are normally constituted by a generic which describes the topographic feature in Question, and in most cases by a specific which describes a special aspect of the feature which is expressed in " the generic. About 80% of the names are compounds and the rest simplexes. The main fonnal ' categories in traditional place- names are . simplex : compound, e.g. Kinn : Askuoll - indefinite : definite, e.g. Kinn, Askvoll - Stoimen, Boknqfjorden - singular: plural. e.g. Kinn - Tangane - case (in some W'eas): Alden - AIda - 10- Derivated names such as Sogn and Stolmen belong to the oldest layer of names and may date from the period around or even B.C. Names without the definite article are considered to be older than names with the definite article, although the definite article may have been added at a later stage. 4 .2 Names of oil fields Names of oil fields off the Norwegian coast may be devided into five groups according to the meaning: 1. Names of fi shes and sea birds (Cod, Albatross) 2. Mythology (Odin, Valin/I) 3, Saga motives (Oseberg, Snorr-e) 4. Fairy tale motives (Draugen, Troll) 5. Miscellaneous (Agat, Stqfjord) Whereas traditional place- names arise gradually as a result of conventional use the names of oil fields are given by decision. The operating companies may suggest names for the oil fields, however in accordance with the regulations issued by the Ministry of Oil and Energy and the Norwegian Language Council (to be dicussed further below). 5, Main types of coastal names in Norway The Norwegian coast consists of a great number of fjords, bays, inlets, islands and holms featured by hills and mountains, and under the sea level the mountainous landscape continues, creating a quantity of undersea skerries and grounds. The wasta] area has at all times constituted an important part of man's activity in the country,, primarily for fi shing, cattle breeding and transport purposes. As a matter of course a detailed naming system has evolved over the centuries, if not milleniums. Obviously many of the islands bear very old names, and most of them refer to a characteristic trait or shape. 5.1 Coastal names as landmarks Most of the existing names were given In a local context. but gradually they have become more known as a result of widespread use by seafarers who sailed aJong the coast. Today when we travel by airline, railway or ship aJong the coast, drive on good motorways or walk with modem maps in our hands -11- we take these means for granted. The seafarers in the past did not have such equipment; they had to navigate by personal experience, and doing so the landmark mountains were of great importance. Some names reflect directly the landmark function, for instance the island name Kunna, derived from Old Norse kunnr 'wise'. 5.2 Names of islands Many of the mountains (or mountainous islands) often bear names which describe the shape. I have already mentioned Alden 'the high one', Stolmen 'the one which rises up'. Related to Alden are Batalden, with the specific Old Norse bati m. 'advantage', and Amlden, with the specific Old Norse ari 'eagle'. Other examples are SilllIio, probably derived from Old Norse sea, sj' 'see', (the top of the island may be seen from far away), Ratt, cf.