U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Institute of Justice Centers for Disease Control and Prevention R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f April 1998 Stalking in America: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey Partners in Research on Violence Against Women by Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes We are pleased to publish this first in Unprecedented interest in stalking over The data are from the National a series of joint reports on violence Violence Against Women (NVAW) against women. the past decade has produced media accounts of stalking victims,1 passage of Survey, a nationally representative When the National Institute of Justice antistalking laws in all 50 States and the telephone survey of 8,000 U.S. (NIJ) and the National Center for 2 women and 8,000 U.S. men (see Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC) District of Columbia, and development launched our partnership to study of a model antistalking code.3 Despite “Survey Methodology and Demo- violence against women, there were graphic Description of the Sample,” no national data on stalking and its this interest, research on stalking has impact. This first-ever national survey been limited to studies of small, unrep- page 15). The survey, which asked has already made a major contribu- resentative, or clinical samples of known detailed questions about respondents’ tion. We eagerly await findings from 4 experiences with violence, including other aspects of the study and stalkers; law journal reviews of the anticipate reports on the incidence constitutionality and effectiveness of stalking, was sponsored jointly by the and prevalence of violence, partner 5 National Institute of Justice and the violence, and rape. specific antistalking statutes; and case studies of individual stalkers.6 Thus, Centers for Disease Control and This NIJ/NCIPC partnership to learn empirical data have been lacking on Prevention through a grant to the more about violence against women Center for Policy Research. is based on a research agenda such fundamental questions about developed by the National Academy stalking as: of Sciences, which was mandated by What is stalking? the Violence Against Women Act • How much stalking is there in the (Title IV of the Crime Act of 1994) and supported by NIJ and CDC. United States? Stalking generally refers to harassing • Who stalks whom? or threatening behavior that an indi- Joint research initiatives stimulate a vidual engages in repeatedly, such as rich cross-fertilization of ideas and • How often do stalkers overtly threaten bring interdisciplinary perspectives to following a person, appearing at a their victims? our knowledge base. The interests of person’s home or place of business, both NCIPC and NIJ in this area are • How often is stalking reported to the grounded in their common focus on making harassing phone calls, leaving social policy. NIJ brings a criminal police? written messages or objects, or vandal- justice perspective; NCIPC examines the issue from a public health and • What are the psychological and social izing a person’s property. These prevention perspective. consequences of stalking? actions may or may not be accompa- nied by a credible threat of serious We hope the result will be a deeper and broader understanding of the This Research in Brief presents data from harm, and they may or may not be implications of this violence and the the first-ever national study on stalking precursors to an assault or murder.7 effective policy response. and addresses these and related questions. Since the data show stalking to be much Legal definitions of stalking vary widely Jeremy Travis, Director National Institute of Justice more prevalent than previously thought from State to State. Though most States and include other findings of broad public define stalking as the willful, malicious, Mark Rosenberg, Director concern, they have significance for legisla- and repeated following and harassing of National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers tors, policymakers, intervention planners, another person, some States include in for Disease Control and Prevention and researchers as well as the public their definition such activities as lying- health and criminal justice communities. in-wait, surveillance, nonconsensual Research in Brief Issues and Findings Discussed in this Brief: Results of a • Although stalking is a gender-neutral • About half of all stalking victims report nationally representative telephone survey of crime, most (78 percent) stalking victims are their stalking to the police. About a quarter of 8,000 women and 8,000 men about their female and most (87 percent) stalking stalking cases reported to the police result in experiences with stalking, cosponsored by perpetrators are male. suspects being arrested. While there is some the National Institute of Justice and the evidence that antistalking laws have increased Centers for Disease Control and Prevention • Adults between 18 and 29 years old are reports to the police, more research is needed and conducted by the Center for Policy the primary targets of stalking, comprising 52 to determine antistalking laws’ full effect on Research. The survey provides the first percent of all victims. reports to the police. national data on stalking in the United • Most stalking cases involve perpetrators States. • About 12 percent of all stalking cases and victims who know each other; 23 percent result in criminal prosecution, and about a Key issues: This study provides empirical of all female victims and 36 percent of all quarter of female stalking victims and about a data on the prevalence and characteristics of male victims are stalked by strangers. tenth of male stalking victims obtain restrain- stalking in the general population: How ing orders against their stalkers. Of all victims • Women are significantly more likely than much stalking is there in the United States? with restraining orders, 69 percent of the men (59 percent and 30 percent, respectively) Who stalks whom? How often do stalkers women and 81 percent of the men said their to be stalked by intimate partners, about half overtly threaten their victims? How often is stalkers violated the order. More research is of whom stalk their partners while the stalking reported to the police? What are the needed on the effectiveness of formal and relationship is intact. Since most stalking psychological and social consequences of informal justice system interventions in cases involve victims and perpetrators who stalking? Also considered in this report is the stalking cases. know each other, future research should key issue of how to define stalking. focus on intimate and acquaintance stalking, • Thirty percent of female stalking victims Key findings and policy implications: rather than “celebrity” stalking. and 20 percent of male stalking victims seek Analysis of survey data produced the psychological counseling as a result of their • There is a strong link between stalking following results: victimization. Stalking victims are significantly and other forms of violence in intimate more likely than nonstalking victims to live in relationships: 81 percent of women who • Stalking is more prevalent than previously fear for their personal safety and to carry were stalked by a current or former husband thought: 8 percent of women and 2 percent something to defend themselves. To better or cohabiting partner were also physically of men in the United States have been stalked meet the needs of stalking victims, the mental assaulted by that partner and 31 percent at some time in their life; an estimated health community should receive comprehen- were also sexually assaulted by that partner. It 1,006,970 women and 370,990 men are sive training on appropriate treatment of is imperative, therefore, that America’s stalked annually. Given these findings, stalking victims. stalking should be treated as a legitimate criminal justice community receive compre- criminal justice and public health concern. hensive training on the special safety needs of • The average stalking case lasts 1.8 years. victims of intimate partner stalking. Since nearly a fifth of all stalking victims move • American Indian/Alaska Native women to new locations to escape their stalkers, it is • Less than half of all stalking victims are are significantly more likely to report being important that address confidentiality directly threatened by their stalkers, although stalked than women of other racial or ethnic programs be made available to stalking victims. backgrounds. More research is needed to the victims, by definition, experience a high establish the degree of variance and level of fear. Thus, “credible threat” require- Target audience: Criminal justice and public determine how much of the variance may be ments should be eliminated from the health researchers and practitioners. Legisla- explained by demographic, social, and definition of stalking in all State stalking tors, policymakers, and intervention planners environmental factors. statutes. at all levels of government. communication, telephone harass- make a credible threat of violence developed by the National Institute ment, and vandalism.8 While most against the victim; others include in of Justice.11 The survey defines States require that the alleged stalker their requirements threats against the stalking as “a course of conduct engage in a course of conduct show- victim’s immediate family; and still directed at a specific person that ing that the crime was not an isolated others require only that the alleged involves repeated visual or physical event, some States specify how many stalker’s course of conduct constitute proximity, nonconsensual communi- acts (usually two or more) must occur an implied threat.10 cation, or verbal, written or implied before the conduct can be considered threats, or a combination thereof, stalking.9 State stalking laws also The definition of stalking used in the that would cause a reasonable person vary in their threat and fear require- NVAW Survey closely resembles the fear,” with repeated meaning on two ments.