Introduction Despite developments in legislation, policy, advocacy, and technology, all designed to improve deaf education and its delivery, deaf students still face a raft of issues from their early years of education through sec- ondary high school. While there have been improvements, that situa- tion continues due largely to fragmentation within the deaf movement based on advocacy efforts for competing approaches to deaf educa- tion. This has occurred in the context of growing corporatization and privatization. The main area of difference has centered on how young deaf peo- ple should learn, be it informally—in the home, the playground, and the like—or formally, such as in the classroom. Should they be taught using oralism (spoken language) or manualism (sign language)? The debate between oralists and manualists has persisted for centuries and has had a signifcant impact on the type of education delivered to deaf students in NSW. Since the 1960s, this situation has become more contested and increasingly pronounced. Different models of disability have come and gone. The fndings of various inquiries and reports have stimulated various exchanges, though they have been implemented either in an ad hoc manner or not at all. New technologies have been introduced, heralding different methods of educating deaf students with particu- lar regard to their individual abilities and to their differing degrees of hearing loss. The debate further deepened with the introduction of bilingualism as another educational method in the early 1990s. Dis- ability discrimination legislation and the United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities served to further drive the deaf education debate. These required countries to take measures to 1 2 A CONSTANT STRUGGLE facilitate the learning of sign language and ensure the education of deaf children be delivered in the most appropriate languages, modes, and means of communication for the individual and in environments that maximize academic and social development. However, deaf stu- dents continue to be generally marginalized in the NSW education system. AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE ON DEAF EDUCATION The origins and development of the education of the deaf and dumb is an obscure but fascinating subject. Not much has been written about it.1 In his 1969 book, Deafness: An Autobiography, David Wright noted that the feld of history of deaf education was underdeveloped. Fifty years later, not much has changed. This is particularly the case in Australia and NSW. One answer why can be found in the following quote: This suspiciousness of “outsider” researcher by individuals who are deaf in conjunction with the complex nature of deaf education are likely factors in the limited nature of previous research on the history of deaf education in Australia.2 Signifcant, if minor, contributions have been made to the histor- ical research of deaf education in NSW. These are Ernest Lund’s “The Education of Deaf Children—An Historical Analysis of Thought and Procedure in New South Wales” (1939), Joseph Alphonsus Burke’s “The History of Catholic Schooling for Deaf and Dumb Children in the Hunter Valley” (1974), and Barbara Lee Crickmore’s “An Histori- cal Perspective on the Academic Education of Deaf Children in New South Wales 1860s–1990s” (2000).3 Lund’s thesis sought to discover and analyze pre-1939 facts for interpretation as a living story. Through collecting information from a “prolonged search among a variety of offcial reports and other doc- uments,” Lund wove a story about the development of the educa- tion of deaf children in NSW against “special resistances,” including INTRODUCTION 3 “government inaction, religious disparity, methodological diversity, and teaching laicality.”4 Burke’s thesis presented a historical overview of a century of Catholic education for the deaf and dumb in the Hunter Valley, a regional area north of Sydney. Focusing heavily on several dominant personalities among the Dominican Sisters and their contribution to deaf education, Burke explored the ecclesiastical and educational rea- sons for deaf education in Australia and the Asia Pacifc region and the establishment of an institution for the deaf and dumb. Furthermore, the contribution of each personality was examined as well as deaf edu- cational methods, outlining the Dominican Sisters’ success with their students as they integrated “fully into the hearing classes at State and Private High Schools across the nation.” Burke emphasized that what the Dominican Sisters did was a spectacular achievement in the feld of special education.5 Crickmore’s dissertation provided a historical investigation of education services for deaf children in NSW since 1860. Adopting a chronological and thematic approach, Crickmore described the sig- nifcant events that shaped deaf education, such as the establishment of special schools in NSW, the rise of the oral movement, and the 1940s rubella epidemic. She also argued that language acquisition was a “fundamental prerequisite to academic achievement” and provided reasons for the academic failings of deaf students. These are inherent in fve themes: the culture of politics and advocacy of deaf education, the framework within which the instruction of deaf children occurs, the imposition of the norm of the hearing child on the education of the deaf child, the resourcing issue and the “mesh of meanings” applied to the education of the deaf by individual players and special interest groups.6 General history books on Australian education have paid scant attention to deaf education. While there are no academic texts ded- icated to the history of deaf education in NSW, Alan Barcan in his book, Two Centuries of Education in New South Wales, mentioned deaf children in a few short references to the Deaf and Dumb Institu- tion in Sydney and the establishment of Opportunity Deaf Classes for 4 A CONSTANT STRUGGLE deaf children.7 M. E. Thomas included limited information about deaf students, discussing the Deaf and Dumb Institution and Farrar School in a chapter of a book about children with disabilities.8 Over the last thirty years, several theses have been written about deaf edu- cation.9 This is partly because of the huge growth in interest in dis- advantaged Australians, including the Forgotten Australians. But only one of these has taken a historical perspective: Ian Colin Whitson’s “Provisions for the Education of Blind, Deaf, Hospitalized, Convales- cent, and Crippled Children in New South Wales Between 1860 and 1944” (1991). Apart from Aaron Payne’s article (2013) on the challenges of pro- ducing an oral history of people who are deaf, not one deaf person has written academically about deaf education and its history in NSW and Australia until now. NOMENCLATURE REGARDING DEAFNESS To appreciate the various ways of defning deafness, one must examine the terminology associated with it. This is complicated, contentious, and warrants explanation. There are several terms for describing peo- ple with varying degrees of deafness or hearing loss. Aussie Deaf Kids (ADK), an organization that provides an online gateway to informa- tion on deafness and hearing loss in relation to children, outlines a comprehensive and general summary of the defnitions of these terms: • Deaf describes people who are “culturally deaf” in that they use Auslan for communication and identify as members of the sign- ing Deaf community, a cultural and linguistic minority group that shares a language, customs, and traditions, and sees deaf- ness in a positive light, not as a disability.10 • deaf describes people who are “audiologically deaf” but do not necessarily identify as members of the signing Deaf community. • hard of hearing and hearing-impaired are terms used generally to describe people who have a mild or moderate hearing loss or have lost some of their hearing in late childhood or adulthood. They usually communicate through speech and lipreading and wear hearing aids and/or cochlear implants.11 INTRODUCTION 5 When the term hearing-impaired was introduced, it was perceived to be a more positive term than deaf because it suggested some degree of hearing, which could be useful. Now, hearing-impaired and hearing impairment are both perceived negatively because they emphasize the absence of hearing. This encourages some people to reject these terms and use Deaf, asserting the positivity of their deafness. However, other people continue to use hearing-impaired because they do not want to be classifed as deaf; they fnd their friends among people who hear, identify with them, and do not wish to be considered part of the sign- ing Deaf community. Yet, others prefer deaf because it refers to their degree of hearing loss with no association with the Deaf community. People who prefer to be referred to as deaf may not have a more signif- cant hearing loss than others who choose the term hearing-impaired.12 The term hard of hearing is commonly applied to adults who have progressively lost their hearing later in their lives. However, it has been introduced as a useful term to describe children with mild-to-moderate hearing loss.13 This highlights how complicated the deafness terminol- ogy issue has become, and the complex politics of the broad and frag- mented population associated with deafness. In October 2013, the International Federation of the Hard of Hearing and the World Federation of the Deaf signed a cooperation agreement recommending that the terms Deaf and hard of hearing be adopted while deeming the term hearing-impaired to be inappropri- ate.14 However, many Australian people and organizations continue to use the term hearing-impaired in preference to hard of hearing.15 Further complicating the deafness terminology issue is the degree of hearing loss. Hearing is measured with an audiometer that calcu- lates a person’s ability to hear a range of sounds at different levels of loudness. The types of loss are labeled as mild, moderate, moderately severe, severe, or profound.16 An average loss of 50 decibels is classifed as “moderate” whereas a loss of 80 decibels is “severe.” Figure 1 shows the sounds that can be heard with different types of hearing loss.