This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from Explore Bristol Research, http://research-information.bristol.ac.uk Author: Leendertz-Ford, Anna S T Title: Anatomy of Seventeenth-Century Alchemy and Chemistry General rights Access to the thesis is subject to the Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International Public License. A copy of this may be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode This license sets out your rights and the restrictions that apply to your access to the thesis so it is important you read this before proceeding. Take down policy Some pages of this thesis may have been removed for copyright restrictions prior to having it been deposited in Explore Bristol Research. However, if you have discovered material within the thesis that you consider to be unlawful e.g. breaches of copyright (either yours or that of a third party) or any other law, including but not limited to those relating to patent, trademark, confidentiality, data protection, obscenity, defamation, libel, then please contact [email protected] and include the following information in your message: •Your contact details •Bibliographic details for the item, including a URL •An outline nature of the complaint Your claim will be investigated and, where appropriate, the item in question will be removed from public view as soon as possible. ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY ANNA STELLA THEODORA LEENDERTZ-FORD A dissertation submitted to the University of Bristol in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts, School of Philosophy. January 2020 [Word count: 80110] ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY ABSTRACT It is claimed that alchemy and alchemists/early modern chymists contributed substantially to proto-chemistry in important ways. To a significant degree, sound science was being practised in the Latin West during the seventeenth century, though not all criteria were met consistently across all nations at all times. This thesis will: (1) Define the criteria for best practice of science (specifically chemistry) using a Wittgensteinian approach; (2) Examine the level to which such criteria were appreciated and adhered to across a representative sample of chemical practices during the seventeenth century. As a counteraction to the extremely negative perceptions of alchemy, often associated with the occult, I demonstrate a dynamic, international community, whose operational practices, far from being unscientific, included many of the criteria which are regarded in modern times as essential prerequisites of science. Determining exactly what constitutes good science is problematic, especially since it is disputed by some that science can even be distinguished from non-science. Therefore, a Wittgensteinian 'family resembles' approach to analysis of science has been selected, establishing the essential characteristics by which good science can be recognised. These criteria are divided into two groups, one designated ‘core requirements’ plus further ‘desirable’ elements. By evaluating various Early Modern chymistry textbooks, operational procedures, research communities and other components, I conclude that many of the criteria for good science were extant in the period in the Latin West. There are a few criteria which are under- represented or absent, for example, Popperian falsificationism and an inconsistent application of scepticism. The overall conclusion is the core criteria of critical reasoning, robust experimentation techniques, challenges to authorities and many of the important values and methods were present within a research community that had developed significantly in the Early Modern period, spanning Europe during the seventeenth-century and beyond. ii ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis is dedicated to my daughters, Elaina and Adriana. Acknowledgements My grateful thanks are due to my supervisor Professor Emeritus Andrew Pyle for his unwavering commitment over the years, for sharing his vast knowledge and experience and whose support has been inestimable. I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Tzuchien Tho for his insightful reviews, other members of the Philosophy Department of the University of Bristol and fellow students who have made my journey so stimulating and rewarding. The support and encouragement of my family, Robert Ford and my amazing daughters, Dr. Elaina Ford and Dr. Adriana Ford, have been invaluable. My very good friends deserve appreciation and thanks for all their help and enthusiasm. iii ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements of the University’s Regulations and Code of Practice for Research Degree Programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. Except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate’s own work. Work done in collaboration with, or the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. Any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. SIGNED…………………………………………………DATE……………………. iv ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY CONTENTS 1 ASSESSING EARLY MODERN ALCHEMY AND CHYMISTRY ............................................ 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PHILOSOPHICAL BACKGROUND............................................................................................................... 3 1.3 TERMINOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Alchemy, Chymistry and Chemistry ........................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Mixtures and Compounds .......................................................................................................... 6 1.4 A HARMONISED APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC PRACTISE ............................................. 6 1.5 CRITERIA FOR GOOD SCIENCE ................................................................................................................ 8 1.5.1 A brief account of the criteria .................................................................................................. 12 1.5.2 The Core Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 15 1.5.3 Scepticism ................................................................................................................................ 17 1.5.4 Epistemic Values: Accuracy/Predictive power and Consistency/Coherence ........................... 18 1.5.5 Observation, Cataloguing and Taxonomy ............................................................................... 19 1.5.6 Heuristic Paradigms ................................................................................................................ 19 1.5.7 Testability ................................................................................................................................. 20 1.5.8 Experimentation ....................................................................................................................... 20 1.5.9 Negative Instances & Falsificationism .................................................................................... 20 1.5.10 Reproducibility and Reliability ................................................................................................ 21 1.5.11 Authorities ................................................................................................................................ 21 1.5.12 Research Community: .............................................................................................................. 21 1.5.13 Desirable Criteria .................................................................................................................... 22 1.5.14 Metaphysical Paradigms .......................................................................................................... 22 1.5.15 Methodological Naturalism ..................................................................................................... 22 1.5.16 Values ....................................................................................................................................... 23 1.5.17 Popperian Falsificationism ...................................................................................................... 24 1.5.18 Epistêmê informing technê ....................................................................................................... 24 1.5.19 Common Methodology ............................................................................................................. 24 1.5.20 Progressive Elements ............................................................................................................... 25 1.5.21 Mathematics ............................................................................................................................. 25 v ANATOMY OF SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY 1.6 EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................................................