View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Waseda University Repository Charlotte Brontë’s Solution to the Excess Woman in Villette 31 Charlotte Brontë’s Solution to the Excess Woman in Villette Yujing MA I. Introduction Villette (1853), Charlotte Brontë’s final novel, confronts the same agonizing question as her other novels, namely the dilemma of how a powerless woman can struggle to realize self- independence and self-emancipation in the midst of a male-dominated society. But the writer’s solution to the question diverges from the traditional frames of her other stories and offers the reader new glimpses. As Judith Mitchell points out, Villette finds a way for a female character to “negotiate a realistic pathway to both love and independence” without submission to the dominant hierarchy (69). The reviews and comments immediately after its publication were minor but relatively fair. Generally speaking, the main arguments of the criticisms were about the character and plot of Lucy Snowe. Meantime, the complaint of coarseness from Brontë’s friend Harriet Martineau, hurt her deeply. Martineau objected that the book is covered by “an atmosphere of pain” and what all the female characters think and deal with is nothing but love (quoted in Gérin 494). Why was Villette so “disagreeable” in those reviewers’ eyes? Matthew Arnold sums up the reason as that “the writer’s mind contains nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage, and therefore that is all she can, in fact put into her book” (quoted in Allott 201). On the other hand, there were favorite reviews, for example, the critic of the Spectator considered the book a bitter complaint against the destiny of those women who were in need of work for their living (quoted in Allott 182). Villette did not receive much feminist critical attention until the publication of Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar’s The Mad Woman in the Attic in 1979. Gilbert and Gubar regard it as Charlotte Brontë’s “most overtly and despairing feminist novel.”(1) Since the 1980s, feminist criticisms have mainly focused on interpreting female desire, the relationship between power and love, and exchanging gender roles in the work. Actually, Villette is not simply about a solution to the emancipation of a repressed single woman in a patriarchal society, but reflects a social problem about “redundant” women in the Victorian age. Brontë creates a fictional model of a spinster in nineteenth century England and finally comes up with emigration as a transition for the “excess” 32 woman to forge independent lives. Apparently, existing interpretations of Villette have neglected to situate the work in this specific historical context. Mrs Oliphant, who frequently emphasized the difference between married and unmarried writers, argued that Brontë’s powerful work originated from her “intense yearning and frustration as a single woman” (quoted in Davis 245). It does not matter whether Mrs Oliphant’s argument is true or not, but the social problem of single women in the Victorian era was statistically true. Although Brontë claimed that Villette “touches on no matter of public interest,”(2) she was acutely conscious that nineteenth-century English society had no obvious role or place for the unmarried female. In Villette, the author sets her novel in a foreign country and uses emigration as a means to transfer her heroine to the new place, which was crucial to resolve the problem of a single female in nineteenth century Britain. Female emigration in the Victorian period is regarded as a feminist movement by some modern historians. This is not to say that Brontë consciously designed a solution to the problem of the middle-class single woman, but later critics can hardly avoid engaging with contemporary issues and they are inevitably determined by the social circumstances and literature around them. In this paper, I will analyze the text in the historical context of female emigration to show that Villette is the result of the social climate of calls for female emigration in the Victorian age. Through this analysis, I attempt to explore in what way the foreign country “Labassecour” differs from Lucy’s home, what the new place provides for the heroine and how she manages to overcome obstacles and realize her economic independence. In order to pursue such research, we must know more clearly Victorian attitudes toward middle-class women’s roles within the domestic sphere and their real position in the period during which Brontë was writing. II. Historical Context There was an imbalance of male and female in the population in the mid-Victorian period as the result of higher child mortality among boys and the emigration of men to America and the colonies. Statistics show that by 1851, two years before the publication of Villette, there were over a million unmarried women and about 400,000 “excess women” in Britain. The most significant point is that most of them were educated women and belonged to the upper class (Davis 246). Some Victorian commentators considered the disparity in population an urgent problem. For example, in 1862, in his essay “Why Are Women Redundant?” the liberal manufacturer W. R. Greg argued that single women remain “the problem to be solved, the evil and anomaly to be cured” (quoted in Poovey 2). Greg even presented a plan to “remove five hundred thousand women from the mother Charlotte Brontë’s Solution to the Excess Woman in Villette 33 country . to the colonies” (quoted in Poovey 5). The problem of single women in English society caused such public attention that they became the source material of literature and art. Richard Redgrave(3) was one of the first and the most persistent in representing the plight of what Greg called the “redundant woman,” on the theme of which Redgrave’s first painting, The Reduced Gentleman’s Daughter, was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840 (Roberts 57). All these facts authentically reflect women’s condition in the nineteenth century. That is to say, it was widely accepted by the Victorians that woman was dependent and subordinate to man. Even though early in 1792 in Vindication of the Rights of Woman Mary Wollstonecraft claimed that women should not be viewed as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, definitions of women’s social roles as “will of God,” “duty,” “the demands of motherhood,” and “home-queen” had not been changed by the mid-Victorian period. In the mid-1850s, Coventry Patmore idealized the character of Honoria as the “Angel in the House,” the description which was later regarded as the ideal image of woman (quoted in Poovey 8). Without the guarantee of marriage, single women had to support themselves by going out to work which was considered to break the ideology of separate spheres for male and female. They were viewed not only as competing for work with men, but also a potential sexual threat to society, which provided a significant reason for Greg to advocate female emigration to the colonies (Poovey 4-5). Therefore, those redundant women were undoubtedly excluded by the social institution owing to the fact that they could not fulfill the marriage target in a period when marriage was the only acceptable and respectful situation for middle-class women. As a single woman from genteel background, the most likely option for employment was as a paid companion or governess (Gleadle 53). But an alternative to being a governess was not so agreeable because their status was still ambiguous at that time. Lack of marriage opportunities and work led surplus women to turn to emigration for searching an outlet. On the contrary, for social commentators like Greg, female emigration was an effective way to eliminate the “evil” on account of their opinion of redundant women’s threat to men’s opportunities and moral order (Poovey 4). Between 1849 and 1862, there were some voluntary societies to aid single female emigrants of middle classes to the colonies, where they were thought to have better chances for marriage and employment (Peterson 16-17). For example, in 1849, the Governess Benevolent Institution turned to colonial emigration as one potential solution for educated single women (Midgley133). However, the actual condition of emigration for unmarried middle-class female was not always successful as the fictional Lucy Snowe in Labassecour. The main reason was held to be “the lack of proper selection,” “the unsuitability of those migrated” and the difficulty of accustoming themselves to the new 34 environment different from Britain (Carrothers 274). Nevertheless, under the influence of a broader enthusiasm for colonial emigration at this period, some feminists began to promote emigration for middle-class women. For instance, Martineau, had called for assistance to single educated women such as governesses to emigrate while writing a series on emigration to Australia for the Daily News in 1851 (Midgley 138). Though Brontë was not active in social activities and denied that her work was concerned with any social problems, she could not conceal her interest in women’s difficulties when she expressed her wish to “say something about the condition of women question” in a letter to her publisher W. S. Williams.(4) Moreover, her wide range of reading concerning social problems evinces this. She read not only some contemporary fictions such as Dickens’s David Copperfield and Bleak House, Thackeray’s Pendennis, Kingsley’s Alton Locke, and Mrs Gaskell’s Ruth, but a number of discussions and surveys of social issues, including Carlyle’s Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, Ruskin’s Stones of Venice, Elizabeth Whateley’s English Life, Social and Domestic (1847), John Stores Smith’s Social Aspects (1850)(5) and so on.