The Influence of Gender and Ethnicity on the use of ICT in Higher Education A Case of Arts and Social Sciences Students in Universiti Malaya A thesis presented to the faculty of the Center for International Studies of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Animesh S. Rathore November 2008 © 2008 Animesh S. Rathore. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled The Influence of Gender and Ethnicity on the use of ICT in Higher Education A Case of Arts and Social Sciences Students in Universiti Malaya by ANIMESH S. RATHORE has been approved for the Center for International Studies by Drew O. McDaniel Professor, School of Media Arts & Studies Gene Ammarell Director, Southeast Asian Studies Daniel Weiner Executive Director, Center for International Studies 3 ABSTRACT RATHORE, ANIMESH S., M.A., November 2008, Southeast Asian Studies The Influence of Gender and Ethnicity on the use of ICT in Higher Education A Case of Arts and Social Sciences Students in Universiti Malaya (125 pp.) Director of Thesis: Drew O. McDaniel While most studies on ICT use among students have typically focused on students in the field of science and technology, this study focuses on a group that has seldom been studied for its ICT use—students in Arts and Social Sciences. Based on a survey of 32 students conducted at the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Universiti Malaya during December 2006, this study examines the relationships among gender, ethnicity, and students’ ICT use. The findings of this study suggest that the female students spent significantly more time using ICT for study purposes than males. The interviews with faculty members revealed that female students spent more time on studies and were less likely to cheat or plagiarize. However, the study found no such difference between Bumiputra and non-Bumiputra students. Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Drew O. McDaniel Professor, School of Media Arts & Studies 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I still remember the summer of 1991, when my mother took a major decision to go back to school after a gap of 25 years. Her determination was so strong that despite some resistance from my brothers and relatives, she pursued her degree in education and started working as a primary school teacher at the same school in India where my father had served as a principal for eight years before his demise in January 1991. If it was not for the hard work my mother had put in raising my sister and myself, I would certainly not be able to pursue the academic career I have now. My mother’s sacrifices and determination to keep standing in a conventionally patriarchal society has always motivated me to study gender development across the developing world. I owe almost everything I have today to her dedication and perseverance. I sincerely wish to thank all those who extended help and support in different ways and made it possible for me to complete this thesis. I am grateful to the Center for International Studies at Ohio University for allowing me to pursue my research interest in Malaysia and awarding me the prestigious Southeast Asian Studies Research Travel Grant that enabled me to travel to Malaysia for my fieldwork. I am thankful to the International Institute of Public Policy and Management (INPUMA) at Universiti Malaya for accepting me as a visiting scholar and providing the necessary support during the data collection. I am also thankful to the Institutional Review Board at Ohio University for being so prompt in approving my research plan and subsequent revisions. Personally, I wish to thank Dr. Sharifah M. Alhabshi (Deputy Director, INPUMA), Mr. Hirman Awang (Asst. Registrar, INPUMA), Ms. Vigneshree King (Asst. 5 Registrar, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences) and other administrative staff at Universiti Malaya. Among the faculty members, I would like to thank Dr. Joseph M. Fernando (History), Dr. Shanthi Thambiah (Gender Studies), Dr. Carol E. Leon (English), Dr. Lim Chee Seng (English), and Mr. Thirunaukarasu Subramaniam (South East Asian Studies) for sharing their valuable insights with me. At Ohio University, I would like to thank Prof. Mohamad Abu Bakar (the 2005- 07 Tun Abdul Razak Chair from Department of International and Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaya), Dr. Gene Ammarell (Director, Southeast Asian Studies), Dr. Liren Zheng (Curator and Bibliographer, Chinese Studies, Cornell University Library), and especially Dr. Haley Duschinski (Sociology and Anthropology) for their useful inputs and encouragement at different times. I am thankful to Ms. Karla Schneider and the other staff at the Center for International Studies for always being so supportive. I am also thankful to my family and all my friends and colleagues at Ohio who helped me at several occasions in different ways. Finally, I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards my advisor Dr. Drew McDaniel (Media Arts and Studies) for being an immense source of inspiration, valuable guidance, constructive criticism, as well as unconditional support at the right times during the course of this thesis. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 4 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 9 List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11 Aim ............................................................................................................................... 21 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ....................................................................................... 23 ICT, Gender, and Ethnicity in Higher Education ......................................................... 23 ICT, Gender, Ethnicity, and Higher Education in Malaysia ......................................... 32 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Malaysia: A Background................................................................................. 43 Demography .................................................................................................................. 43 Ethnic Groups in Malaysia ........................................................................................... 43 The Malays ................................................................................................................ 44 The Chinese ............................................................................................................... 45 The Indians ................................................................................................................ 48 Ethnic Integration and Politics in Malaysia .................................................................. 51 The New Economic Policy ........................................................................................... 55 Malaysia’s Technological Growth ................................................................................ 60 7 Gender and Development in Malaysian Context .......................................................... 63 Women in Colonial Economy .................................................................................... 64 Gender across Ethnic Groups ................................................................................... 66 Women and Politics .................................................................................................. 66 Women in the New Economy ..................................................................................... 68 Gender Development in Malaysia: Key Challenges ................................................. 70 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 71 Chapter 4: Research Methodology.................................................................................... 73 Method .......................................................................................................................... 74 Proxies ...................................................................................................................... 74 Survey Tool ............................................................................................................... 75 Sampling ................................................................................................................... 79 About Universiti Malaya .............................................................................................. 81 About the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences ............................................................. 82 PTM: Centre for IT ....................................................................................................... 83 Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 83