Online hate speech Introduction into motivational causes, effects and regulatory contexts Authors: Konrad Rudnicki and Stefan Steiger Design: Milos Petrov This project is funded by the Rights, Equality and Citizenship Programme of the European Union (2014-2020) The content of this manual represents the views of the author only and is their sole responsibility. The European Commission does not accept any responsibility for use that may be made of the information it contains. ONLINE HATE SPEECH WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? │ 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? Defining a fuzzy concept 5 Practical definitions 6 HATE - AN EMOTION A psychological perspective 7 Why is it everywhere? 8 GLOBALIZATION OF HATE 9 VICTIMS OF HATE Gender 10 Race/ethnicity/nationality 12 Sexuality 16 HATE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE VICTIMS Consequences 17 Moderators 19 HATE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE PERPETRATORS Motivations 20 Moderators 22 HATE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE BYSTANDERS Perceptions 23 Moderators 24 COUNTER-COMMUNICATION Definition 26 Effectiveness 27 Challenges 29 Recommendations 30 ONLINE HATE SPEECH WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? │ 4 CONTENT MODERATION Definition 32 Effectiveness 33 Challenges 35 Recommendations 37 PSYCHOEDUCATION Definition 40 Effectiveness 41 Recommendations 42 HATE SPEECH AND POLITICAL REGULATION 43 MODES OF HATE SPEECH REGULATION 45 HATE SPEECH REGULATION IN GERMANY Legal framework 47 Recent developments 49 Reporting and sanctioning 49 HATE SPEECH REGULATION IN IRELAND Legal framework 50 Recent developments 51 Reporting and sanctioning 51 HATE SPEECH REGULATION IN THE NETHERLANDS Legal framework 52 Recent developments 53 Reporting and sanctioning 54 HATE SPEECH REGULATION IN BELGIUM Legal framework 55 Recent developments 56 Reporting and sanctioning 57 HATE SPEECH REGULATION IN HUNGARY Legal framework 58 Recent developments 59 Reporting and sanctioning 59 GENERAL REMARKS 60 ONLINE HATE SPEECH WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? │ 5 WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? Defining a fuzzy concept A universally accepted definition of hate Some researchers assume that hate speech speech, and its online version: cyberhate, necessarily has to involve a threat of violence does not exist. Different researchers and [3][4], but not all scholars agree on that institutions use slightly different definitions [1] matter [5][6]. Some even propose abandoning [2], which is not unusual in social sciences, attempts at strictly defining hate speech in which concepts are very often challenging altogether [2]. to define clearly. However, the multitude of definitions of hate speech used in research The European Union in its legislation [7] have some features in common: defines hate speech in part as: It is a message directed “public incitement to violence or hatred directed against a group of persons or a against an individual or a member of such a group defined on the basis group of individuals based of race, colour, descent, religion or belief, on their identity. or national or ethnic origin” Based on that message the This definition will be picked up again, when it group is viewed as negative, comes to the political regulation of hate speech. unwelcome or undesirable which warrants hostility Online hate speech (i.e. cyberhate) is a special towards them. case of hate speech that occurs in the online environment, making the perpetrators more anonymous, which may make them seem less accountable, and as a result potentially more ruthless [8]. Further reading: Chetty, N., & Alathur, S. (2018). Hate speech review in the context of online social networks. Aggression and violent behavior, 40, 108-118. ONLINE HATE SPEECH WHAT IS ONLINE HATE SPEECH? │ 6 Practical definitions Even though both legal and academic defini- In fact, even in legal systems, the definition tions of hate speech exist, the applied aspect of hate speech deviates from being comple- of combating hate rarely adheres to them. tely strict and encompasses more than To effectively fight online hate speech, merely incitement to violence. The Protocol non-government organizations (NGOs) aim of the Council of Europe, in its additional to be more flexible than the justice system protocol on cybercriminality defines online or academic systems allow. hate as: In particular, it is increasingly “Racist and xenophobic material means any common to define hate speech written material, any image or any other broadly and include messages that representation of ideas or theories, which do not explicitly incite violence advocates, promotes or incites hatred, discrimination or violence, against any indi- only, but instead spread prejudice, vidual or group of individuals based on race, stereotypes, biases and a general colour, descent or national or ethnic origin, sense of ostracism. as well as religion if used as a pretext for any of these factors.” (Art. 2–1). For example, the Anti-Defamation League defines online hate speech as: “any use of electronic communications technology to spread anti-Semitic, racist, bigoted, extremist or terrorist messages or information.” [9] Further reading: Quintel, T., & Ullrich, C. (2019). Self-Regulation of Fundamental Rights? The EU Code of Conduct on Hate Speech, Related Initiatives and Beyond. Fundamental Rights Protection Online (…) ONLINE HATE SPEECH HATE - AN EMOTION │ 7 HATE - AN EMOTION A psychological perspective The definitions of online hate that exist in Interestingly, the anecdote that there is a fine science and law are notoriously circular line between love and hate actually justifies and define hate speech as “inciting hate.” the ‘passion’ aspect of hate. Love and hatred That is not helpful and we have to reach share a high intensity which is also reflected out to psychological research to learn what in activity with similar patterns of brain hatred itself is. Hate speech originates activity for both. [11] from personally experienced hatred and leads to its own further perpetuation. As every other emotion, hatred serves an evolutionary function and cannot In psychology, hatred is a strong, negative be viewed as purely “evil.” Just like emotional state. It is described as an fear saves people from danger, anger “aversive” emotion, which promotes allows them to fight off violence and avoidance of the object of hatred, similarly disgust makes them avoid diseases, to fear or disgust. [10] hatred has its purpose too. Three elements are thought to comprise hatred: In particular, hatred of other unknown groups served our ancestors as a defence 1. A negation of intimacy - creating mechanism of their own kin. The love for distance between yourself and the one’s own people was frequently painted hated object. on the canvas of hatred towards the 2. Passion - co-occurrence of strong out-group or out-groups. [12] emotions like anger. 3. Devaluation - seeing the hated object as worthless. Further reading: Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2005). The psychology of hate. American Psychological Association. ONLINE HATE SPEECH HATE - AN EMOTION │ 8 Why is it everywhere? It may appear that online hate, trolling, is not. In turn, ostracism and hate are a tool of cyberbullying and other forms of violence protecting the group from people who break that utilize new technologies are something its norms and values. Unfortunately, merely new. However, in reality, their existence rests looking differently can be perceived by our upon several psychological mechanisms that brains as breaking the norms. are as old as humanity itself. Because we are more inclined to care Our mental resources (i.e. attention, memory) about the negative and because we are limited and have to be used with caution. are so protective of our own groups, Using energy sparingly allowed our ances- hateful rhetoric comes easy to us. tors to survive, so they had to learn how It takes more effort to express positivity to properly prioritize what to remember, what to pay attention to and with whom to and it is more exciting to observe cooperate. negativity. From an evolutionary per- spective ostracising others is safer Research shows that negative emotions than including them. very often have to take priority in our mental systems [140]. For most animals, stimuli evoking negative emotions are threats that have to be dealt with in order to guarantee survival. That is why people are so keen on watching and reading negative news about catastrophes or violence. News of this sort appear to us like they are important for survival. Scientists call this phenomenon “negativity bias” [141]. With regard to group conflicts, negativity bias is expressed in our love of gossip [142]. People favour information about the behaviour of others to learn who is trustworthy and who Further reading: Waller, J. E. (2004). Our ancestral shadow: Hate and human nature in evolutionary psychology. Journal of Hate Studies, 3, 121. ONLINE HATE SPEECH GLOBALIZATION OF HATE │ 9 GLOBALIZATION OF HATE World-wide platform of discrimination The invention of the Internet created a brand the Web. Klanwatch in 1998 wrote: “Even new environment in which hateful rhetoric lone racists, with no coreligionists nearby, was able to thrive. It serves as a platform feel they are part of a movement.” that facilitates the emergence of collective identities across the world. On the one hand, In addition to spreading the reach of hate it can facilitate the creation of inclusive iden- globally, the Internet also facilitated its tities that can span across national, racial growth through the so-called “toxic online or ethnic divisions (e.g. gamers), but on the disinhibition