Mapping Applied Linguistics Mapping Applied Linguistics: A guide for students and practitioners provides an innovative and wide-ranging introduction to the full scope of applied linguistics. Incorporating both socio-cultural and cognitive perspectives, the book maps the diverse and constantly expanding range of theories, methods and issues faced by students and practitioners alike. Practically oriented and ideally suited to students new to the subject area, each chapter demonstrates how applied linguists can investigate the role of language in an individual’s or group’s real-world problem, and the potential solutions available. The book provides in-depth coverage of: I Language teaching and education, literacy and language disorders I Language variation and World Englishes I Language policy and planning I Lexicography and forensic linguistics I Multilingualism and translation Including real data and international examples from Latin America, South-East Asia, the US and the UK, the book features further reading and exercises in each chapter, fieldwork suggestions and a full glossary of key terms. An interactive companion website also provides a wealth of additional resources, including ideas for research projects, links to key websites and sample answers to the chapter exercises. A reader forum allows students and practitioners to share experiences and concerns. Providing a dynamic and thorough overview of the rapidly growing field of applied linguistics, this book will be essential reading for students studying applied linguistics, TESOL, general linguistics and education at the advanced undergraduate or master’s degree level. It is also the ideal gateway for practitioners to better understand the wider scope of their work. Christopher J. Hall is a Senior Lecturer at York St John University, UK and currently teaches on the BA in English Language and the MA in TESOL. Patrick H. Smith is Associate Professor of Literacy/Biliteracy at The University of Texas at El Paso, USA. Rachel Wicaksono is a Senior Lecturer at York St John University, UK and Head of Programme for the MA in TESOL. ‘Mapping Applied Linguistics is far and away the best introduction to applied linguistics we have to date. But it is more than that. It is a major contribution to the very definition and foundations of the field. It will be viewed as a seminal book.’ James Paul Gee, Arizona State University, US ‘The authors of Mapping Applied Linguistics have included broad socio-cultural and critical perspectives on the key issues and methodologies in applied linguistics. It is written in language that is accessible to the general reader as well as advanced undergraduate or postgraduate students. It will provide a much-needed comprehensive introduction to the field.’ Angel Lin, University of Hong Kong ‘This book covers an impressively wide range of topics that are of interest to students of applied linguistics. It offers a detailed discussion of the funda- mentals of a number of sub-disciplines with the help of a variety of fascinating examples and case studies, all presented in a lively and accessible style.’ Geri Popova, Goldsmiths University of London, UK ‘This textbook is a lot more than a carefully assembled survey of major devel- opments and issues in applied linguistics; it helps us see the relevance of the study of language in our everyday experience.’ Constant Leung, King’s College London, UK ‘Mapping Applied Linguistics is a comprehensive introduction and guide to many of the areas which comprise Applied Linguistics.’ Urszula Clark, Aston University, UK Mapping Applied Linguistics A guide for students and practitioners CHRISTOPHER J. HALL, PATRICK H. SMITH AND RACHEL WICAKSONO First published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2011 Christopher J. Hall, Patrick H. Smith and Rachel Wicaksono All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hall, Christopher J., 1961– Mapping applied linguistics : a guide for students and practitioners / Christopher J Hall, Patrick H Smith, Rachel Wicaksono. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Applied linguistics. 2. Language and languages—Study and teaching. I. Smith, Patrick H. II. Wicaksono, Rachel. III. Title. P129.H27 2011 418—dc22 2010031444 ISBN 0-203-83242-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978–0–415–55912–6 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–55913–3 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–83242–4 (ebk) Dedications For Juan always (CJH) Para la Luz de mi vida (PHS) For Rian and Clara (RW) Contents List of figures xi List of tables xv Preface xvii Why mapping? xviii How is the book organized? xviii Who are the authors? xx Who is this book for? xxi How can the book be used? xxii Acknowledgements xxv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why do we use different languages? 1 1.2 Ten ways we’re led astray in language and applied linguistics 4 1.3 Applied linguistics 14 1.4 Bottom-up applied linguistics 19 Activities 21 Further reading 21 PART A LANGUAGE IN EVERYDAY USE 23 Chapter 2 Language variation 25 2.1 Language variation and social judgement 26 2.2 Kinds of variation 31 2.3 Standardization and ‘non-standard’ varieties 36 2.4 Non-native varieties and World Englishes 39 2.5 Linguistic insecurity and language loss 45 2.6 Context and language practices 48 2.7 Casting ahead 49 Activities 50 Further reading 50 VIII CONTENTS Chapter 3 Key populations 52 3.1 Issues in the naming of populations 54 3.2 Issues in the categorizing of populations 56 3.3 Populations characterized by the language(s) used 57 3.4 Populations characterized by issues of access to language 61 3.5 Populations characterized by the social role of language 67 3.6 Populations characterized by their professional or academic interest in language 72 3.7 Roles for applied linguists 74 Activities 74 Further reading 75 Chapter 4 Discourse analysis 76 4.1 The pervasive relevance of discourse (analysis) 78 4.2 Linguistic approaches to discourse analysis 79 4.3 Social approaches to discourse analysis 87 4.4 Themes in contemporary discourse analysis 89 4.5 How can doing discourse analysis help the clients of applied linguists? 94 Activities 96 Further reading 96 Chapter 5 Language policy and planning 98 5.1 Language decisions 100 5.2 Corpus, status and acquisition planning 107 5.3 Keeping languages alive 112 5.4 Planning for access to services 116 5.5 Language policy and planning in globalizing times 118 5.6 Roles for applied linguists 123 Activities 125 Further reading 126 PART B LANGUAGE, LEARNING AND EDUCATION 127 Chapter 6 Literacy 129 6.1 The expanding scope of literacy 130 6.2 Writing systems and culture 135 6.3 Literacy and individuals 141 6.4 Child and adult literacies 143 6.5 Academic achievement and the measurement of literacy 148 6.6 Roles for applied linguists 151 Activities 151 Further reading 153 CONTENTS IX Chapter 7 Language and education 154 7.1 The language of home, community and school 156 7.2 Language as a medium in school 165 7.3 Language as an object in school 167 7.4 Educating linguistic minorities and learners with special needs 168 7.5 Language, testing and assessment 171 7.6 Roles for applied linguists 172 Activities 174 Further reading 175 Chapter 8 Bilingual and multilingual education 176 8.1 Definitions and purposes 177 8.2 Language-based frames 179 8.3 Content-based frames 181 8.4 Context-based frames 188 8.5 Integrating the frameworks 190 8.6 Characteristics of effective programmes 191 8.7 Roles for applied linguists 193 Activities 195 Further reading 196 Chapter 9 Additional language education 197 9.1 Contexts of additional language education 198 9.2 The problem of method 201 9.3 Individual learner differences 204 9.4 Assessing additional languages 209 9.5 Economic, cultural and political aspects of additional language education 212 9.6 Roles for applied linguists 218 Activities 219 Further reading 219 PART C LANGUAGE AND EXPERT USES 221 Chapter 10 Translation 223 10.1 Contexts of translation 225 10.2 Translatability and translation equivalence 227 10.3 The translation process 230 10.4 What do translators need to know? 232 10.5 Types of translation 234 10.6 Interpreting and audiovisual translation 238 10.7 Technology in translation 242 10.8 Roles for applied linguists 245 Activities 247 Further reading 247 X CONTENTS Chapter 11 Lexicography 249 11.1 Words in the mind and in society 250 11.2 Authority or record? 253 11.3 Uses and types of dictionaries 258 11.4 Dictionary compilation 261 11.5 Dictionaries as tools for learning 270 11.6 Corpora, computers and the internet 271 11.7 Roles for applied linguists 273 Activities 274 Further reading 274 Chapter 12 Forensic linguistics 276 12.1 Language as legal medium and matter 277 12.2 The language of the law 278 12.3 Language and criminal investigation 283 12.4 Language