Criswell Theological Review 5.1 (1990) 69-82. Copyright © 1990 by The Criswell College. Cited with permission. ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BOOK OF ACTS JOHN MCRAY Wheaton College Graduate School, Wheaton, IL 60187 The winds of biblical scholarship have blown toward the Book of Acts from a largely theological direction for the past quarter of a century,1 providing a corrective to the pervasive concern with ques- tions of historicity fostered by the work of W. Ramsay almost a century ago.2 However, the winds are changing again, and interest is once more being kindled in questions relating to the trustworthiness of Acts. These changing winds are blowing from such unlikely places as the University of Tubingen itself, whose extremely critical views were held by Ram- say prior to his sojourn in Asia Minor. For example, M. Hengel, a NT scholar at Tubingen, "makes a bold departure from radical NT scholar- ship in supporting the historical integrity of the Acts of the Apostles. and demonstrates that Luke's account is historically reliable. ."3 Miti- gating cases against the hyperskepticism of scholars like J. Knox,4 and G. Leudemann,5 are now being made in various quarters bolstered by new discoveries in archaeological and inscriptional material.6 1 C. Talbert, ed., Perspectives on Luke-Acts (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978); I. H. Marshall, Luke: Historian and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970); L. E. Keckand J. L. Martyn, Studies in Luke-Acts (Nashville: Abingdon, 1966). 2 W. Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1908); idem, The Cities of St. Paul (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1907); idem, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (2d ed.; London/New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1915). 3 From the jacket of Hengel's Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity (Phila- delphia: Fortress, 1979). 4 J. Knox, Chapters in a Life of Paul (New York: Abingdon, 1950). (Rev. ed.; Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1987). 5 G. Leudemann, Paulus der Heidenapostell: Studien zur Chronologie (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1980). English trans. by F. S. Jones, Paul-Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984). 6 See works below by Finegan, McRay, and Herner. 70 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW In this article only a modicum of current archaeological research will be presented because an article of this length requires a high degree of selectivity in order to include even the highlights of archae- ology's ongoing contribution to the study of Acts. Older works on Acts, such as those by Ramsay, Foakes-Jackson, and Lake,7 are now able to be supplemented, and in places corrected, by contemporary research on archaeology and classical history in the works of J. Finegan,8 C. Hemer,9 the author,10 and others. For convenience we may group significant discoveries relating to Acts into the following categories: 1) chronology, 2) inscriptions and coins, and 3) excavated sites. Chronology The unbridled skepticism of Knox and Leudemann concerning the trustworthiness of Acts for constructing a reliable, if not detailed, chronology of its events has been effectively neutralized by the careful work of less radical scholars. Fragments11 of an inscription reproducing a letter sent from Claudius, either to the people of Delphi or to the successor of Gallio, have been found at Delphi mentioning Gallio (Loukioj [ou] uioj Galliwn o f [iloj] mou ka [i anqu] patoj [thj Axaiaj] egrayen. ).12 C. Herner and J. Finegan demonstrate that most recent studies13 on the Gallio inscription require the placing of that proconsul's accession to office in Achaia in A.D. 51/52 (Acts 18:12). Paul, having come to Corinth 18 months earlier than his appearance before Gallio (18:11), could have arrived in the late fall of 49,14 or 7 F. J. Foakes-Jackson and K. Lake, The Beginnings of Christianity (5 vols.; New York: Macmillan, 1920-33; 5 vols.; repr., Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966). 8 J. Finegan, The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Mediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981). 9 The scholarly world has been recently blessed by the posthumous publication of the exhaustive work of Professor Herner, The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History (WUNT; Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1989). His work deals with questions of the history, language, geography, and structure of Acts. 10 J. McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991). 11 Four were known to A. Deissmann (see n. 12), but a total of nine are now accepted by Herner (The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History, 252, n. 18). See his analysis based on these additional fragments in "Observations on Pauline Chron- ology," in D. A. Hagner and M. J. Harris, eds., Pauline Studies (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980) 6-9. 12 A. Deissmann, St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History (New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1912) appendix I. 13 See Herner, Book of Acts, 252, n. 18. 14 Finegan, The Archaeology of the New Testament, 13. John McRay: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BOOK OF ACTS 71 taking a less restrictive view of the 18-month period, in the late fall of 50.15 This date coincides well with Suetonius' record of an expulsion of the Jews from Rome under Claudius in A.D. 49,16 which occurred just before Paul arrived in Corinth (Acts 18:2).17 Dio Cassius' comment that Claudius “did not drive them out [i.e., because there were so many] . but ordered them not to hold meetings"18 probably refers to the begin- ning of his reign when he showed tolerance to the Jews.19 The very recent discovery of a cemetery in Jericho, seven miles long with more than 120 tombs, provides support for this analysis.20 One of the tombs contained an inscribed sarcophagus which belonged to “Theodotus, freedman of Queen Agrippina. ." He was freed by the queen, the second wife of Claudius, between A.D. 50 and 54. This manumission of a Jewish slave21 (Theodotus is Greek for Nathanael), points to a favorable relation between the house of Claudius and the Jews early in his reign. Later in his reign, another wife of Claudius, Queen Protonice, converted to Christianity, made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and returned to Rome with a report that the Jews had wrongfully withheld from Christians the possession of Golgotha, the cross, and the tomb of Christ. A little known passage in the Doctrine of Addai then reads: “And when Caesar heard it, he commanded all the Jews to leave the country of Italy.”22 This is probably the expulsion referred to above by Suetonius. 15 Herner, The Book of Acts, 169,252-53; "Pauline Chronology," 6. 16 Herner, The Book of Acts, 169. 17 Orosius (Seven Books of History Against the Romans 7.6,15-16) dated it to the ninth year of Claudius's reign, which Finegan places at A.D. 49 (Handbook of Biblical Chronology [Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964] 319. Suetonius Twelve 25; idem, The Teaching of Addai 7b-lla. See G. Howard, trans., The Teaching of Addai (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981) 33. 18 Dio Cassius, History of Rome 60.6.6. 19 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 19.280-91. G. Howard, "The Beginnings of Christianity in Rome: A Note on Suetonius, Life of Claudius XXV A," Restoration Quarterly 24 (1981) 175-77. 20 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, "The Saga of the Goliath Family-As Revealed in Their Newly Discovered 2,000 Year Old Tomb," Biblical Archaeology Review 9/1 (1983) 52-53. 21 Another Theodotus, who was a priest and synagogue president, whose name was found on a pre- A.D. 70 inscription belonging to a synagogue in Jerusalem, is called "son of Vettenus" and thus may have been a slave who had been freed by the prominent Roman family of the Vetteni, taking their name as was the custom. A. Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East (New York: George H. Doran, 1922) 439-41; Finegan, Light from the Ancient Past, 306. Albright felt that this synagogue of Theodotus may be connected with the "synagogue of freedmen" in Acts 6:9. W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine, (Baltimore: Penguin, 1960) 172. I 22 Howard, Doctrine of Addai, 33. 72 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW Inscriptions and Coins One of our most important sources for the study of the ancient world continues to be the ongoing decipherment of already discovered inscriptions and the continual discovery of new ones. For example, some 7,500 inscriptions have been found in the Greek Agora of Athens alone.23 They testify to the huge number of inscribed altars, monu- ments, and buildings that existed in this part of Athens' huge market area. Excavations by the American School of Classical Studies in 1970 and 1981-82 unearthed about 25 hermai (statues) in the northwest part of this western agora alone. This area had "assumed something of the aspect of a museum" in the time of Acts,24 and Petronius, a Roman satirist in the court of Nero, could say that it was easier to meet a god than a man in Athens.25 Paul was thus impressed that he found among these "objects of your wor- ship" an altar even "to the unknown god" (agnwstw qew), Acts 17:13). Although this altar no longer exists, an altar "to the unknown god," was purportedly located by Pope Innocent III in A.D. 1208 in Athens.26 Pausanias, who visited Athens between A.D. 143 and 159, saw such altars. Describing his trip from the harbor to Athens he wrote, "The Temple of Athene Skiras is also here, and one of Zeus further off, and altars of the 'Unknown gods'.