This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. GENDER REPRESENTATIONS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE TEXTS IN TANZANIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Elizabeth Kilines Sekwiha Gwajima PhD The University of Edinburgh October 2011 Content…………………………………………………………..…i Declaration………………………………………………………………vii Acknowledgment………………………………………………………..viii Dedication……………………………………………………………… i x Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………x List of Tables, Figures and photographs……………………………………………xi Index of Appendices……………………………………………………xii Abstract………………………………………………………………………xiii CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Introduction.............................................................................................1 Background to the topic............................................................................2 Tanzania overview.....................................................................................6 The Tanzanian education system.............................................................14 Pre – education................................................................................. 14 Colonial education............................................................................... 15 Post- independence education.............................................................. 16 Structure of the current education system........................................... 19 Globalisation in Tanzania Impact of Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs)………………………… 21 Education policy on the medium of instruction in secondary schools…24 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)........................................ 26 The prominence and urgency in Millennium Development Goal Three: promoting gender equality and empowerment of wome……………………… 28 The criticism of Millennium Development GoalThre…………………………. 30 Research questions.................................................................................37 The contribution of this study.......................................................37 Thesis structure....................................................................................38 i Summary..................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Introduction.................................................................................................................40 Sociology of literature.................................................................................................40 Postcolonial approaches..............................................................................................42 Criticisms and defences of the postcolonial literature ................................................43 Didactical function …………………………………………………… 43 Language of postcolonial texts ..................................................... 44 Diversity and commonalities in postcolonial literature. ................45 Western feminist perspectives.......................................................... 47 Western feminist literary criticism ..................................................51 African feminist thinking.................................................................52 Critique of western feminism .......................................................52 Gender and problems of colonisation ..........................................55 Critique of male dominance in literature .....................................57 Gender and classroom interaction…………………………………………………..59 Research gap……………………………………………………………………….60 Theoretical framework and conclusion...................................................61 Summary....................................................................................................................62 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Introduction...............................................................................63 Selection of literary texts for analysis........................................63 Interviews with policy makers (officials) and teachers....................65 Interview with students…………………………………………………………….68 Classroom observation…………………………………………………………….69 Follow-up interviews with teachers……………………………………………71 ii Other data resources…………………………………………………………………72 Data analysis.........................................................................73 Scope and location of the study..................................................75 Form Four Students....……………………………………… 7 5 Six schools in three regions .................................................................75 Practical matters and negotiation of access…………………………………………77 Obtaining research clearance……………………………………………………….78 Developing the research instruments and validating...……………79 Reflexivity…………………………………………………………………81 Time frame of the research…………………………………………………………81 Ethical considerations………………………………………………………………82 Summary…………………………………………………………………………84 CHAPTER FOUR: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS Introduction…………………………………………………………...…85 Nature of the syllabus……………………………………………………87 Things Fall Apart (Achebe, 1958) and The Great Ponds (Amadi, 1969)…89 The construction and treatment of masculinity in the novels Status of males versus females Unheard and silenced women Domestic violence Positive roles for women: power, beauty and purity Is It Possible? (Ole – Kulet, 1971)…………………………………………105 Education Maasai culture regarding marriage Three Suitors, One Husband (Mbia, 1960)…………………………………108 Credentials of traditional African women The Lion and the Jewel (Soyinka, 1963)……………………………………112 iii Male and female views on tradition and education Song of Lawino and Ocol (P’Bitek, 1966)……………………………………116 The female traditionalist The male champion of change Development (Faraja, 1980)……………………………………………………123 Underdevelopment Tackling political corruption in Tanzania The treatment of gender Passed Like a Shadow (Mapalala, 2006)……………………………………126 The HIV/AIDS Plague Promiscuous sexual behaviour Prostitution Ignorance and Superstition Unstable families Summary and Conclusion…………………………………………………………133 CHAPTER FIVE: POLICY MAKERS’ AND TEACHERS’VIEWS ABOUT THE REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN THE CHOSEN TEXTS Introduction....................................................................................................135 Officials’ views of gender representation in the selected texts……………138 Officials’ reasons for incorporating the gender theme and account of the policy guiding the teaching of literature……………………………………………… 140 Officials’ account for the evaluation of the literary texts and the selecting proces..142 Officials’ views of the teacher’s role and the feedback mechanism to monitor policy implementation…………………………………………………………146 Teachers’ views…………………………………………………………150 A traditional less critical view A critical group Teachers’ views on the influence of their teaching methodology………154 iv Teachers’ view of parental influence……………………………………155 Summary and conclusion...........................................................................156 CHAPTER SIX: LITERATURE CLASSROOM PRACTICES AND STUDENTS’ VIEWS Introduction................................................................................................158 School vignettes…………………………………………………………159 Teaching and learning resources..............................................................163 Nature of classroom discussion…………………………………………169 Addressing the theme’ Position of Women…………………………………… 173 Failure to engage students in critical discussion……………………………. 177 Class management……………………………………………………………….. 179 The impact of resources scarcity…………………………………………182 Students’ views of teachers’ commitment and competence.......................185 Students’ views of representation of masculinity and femininity…………187 Students’ interpretation of the texts’ underpinning morality………………187 Students’ attitudes to the tradition of the bride-price………………………189 Students’ favourite text and the views of positive representation of women..192 Students’ criticisms of negative representation of women…….......................193 Students’ awareness of the authors’ standpoint……………………………………195 Summary and conclusion............................. .......................195 CHAPTER SEVEN: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction……………………………………………………………………197 Purpose of the study………………………………………………........197 Implications of the study for policy and practice, and the challenges in Tanzania in relation to gender equality in secondary schools......................................................198 Summary of key findings…………………………………………………….........203 Gender representation in the literary texts…………………………………… 203 v Teachers’ lack of skill in promoting critical discussion……………………. 205 The process of selecting