Environmental and biodiversity impacts of organic farming in the hills and uplands of Wales Organic Centre Wales March 2004 Organic Centre Wales c/o Institute of Rural Sciences University of Wales Aberystwyth SY23 3AL Funded by Countryside Council for Wales Welsh Assembly Government This report was compiled and edited by Susan Fowler (OCW). It was written by Susan Fowler (OCW), David Frost (ADAS) and Caroline de Carle (OCW) and with guidance and contributions from Nic Lampkin (IRS/OCW) and Dan Powell (Gaia Partnership). Additional guidance and contributions from Jane Powell (OCW) and John Warren (IRS), and many others, including those who commented on the final draft: CCW staff, John Wildig (Adas), Dylan Morgan (NFU Wales), Graham Harris (IRS), are gratefully acknowledged. OCW apologises if any comments have not been incorporated or misinterpreted. The opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and not necessarily of the CCW or the Welsh Assembly Government. CONTENTS CONTENTS......................................................................................................................... i 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Objectives of the Report ..................................................................................... 1 1.3 Policy context...................................................................................................... 2 2 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming ............................... 5 2.2 Approach taken in this report.............................................................................. 5 3 SYSTEM CHARACTERISATION: ........................................................................ 10 3.1 Hill and Upland farming ................................................................................... 10 3.2 The Development of Hill Farming in Wales..................................................... 11 3.3 Organic by Default?.......................................................................................... 16 3.4 Pressures for Change in Hill and Upland Farming ........................................... 16 3.5 The Organic Approach...................................................................................... 17 4 GENERAL AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH OF ORGANIC FARMING18 4.1 General Aims and Objectives ........................................................................... 19 4.2 Legislative Framework ..................................................................................... 21 4.3 Factors Involved in the Conversion of Hill and Upland Holdings to Organic Farming......................................................................................................................... 24 4.4 The Whole-System Approach in Practice......................................................... 25 4.5 The Development of Organic Farming in the Hills and Uplands of Wales...... 29 4.6 Organic Farming and other Agri-Environment Schemes ................................. 30 5 Implications Of The Factors Involved In Organic Conversion And Management For Biodiversity And The Environment - Livestock Management......................................... 33 5.1 Reduction in Stocking Rates............................................................................. 33 5.2 Adjusting Stocking Balance – Usually by Increasing Ratio of Cattle to Sheep36 5.3 Keeping Indigenous Breeds and Strains Adapted to the Environmental Conditions of the Farm ................................................................................................. 40 5.4 Control of external parasites ............................................................................. 45 5.5 Reduced and restricted Use of Prophylactic Allopathic Veterinary Medicines 47 5.6 Use of Forage Based Diets................................................................................ 49 5.7 Storage and use of Slurries, Manures and Composts and constraints on Import/Export of nutrients ............................................................................................ 50 6 Implications of the Factors involved in Organic Conversion And Management for Biodiversity and the Environment - Crop Management................................................... 53 Organic Farming Centre for Wales 6.1 Cessation of N Fertiliser Use ............................................................................ 53 6.2 Restriction on P& K Use................................................................................... 56 6.3 Use of Lime....................................................................................................... 57 6.4 Use of Clovers and Herbs in Grass Leys .......................................................... 58 6.5 Cessation of Use of Chemical Pesticides and Herbicides................................. 60 6.6 Mechanical and Manual Weed Control, sensitive and timely cultivations....... 63 6.7 Use of Mixed Farm Systems and Rotations (Arable/Grass)............................. 65 6.8 Use of Cover Crops and Undersowing ............................................................. 70 6.9 Use of Green Manures ...................................................................................... 72 7 Implications of the factors involved in Organic Conversion and Management for Biodiversity and the Environment - Environmental/Habitat Management ...................... 74 7.1 Baseline Survey of Organic Farms ................................................................... 75 7.2 Conservation Plans............................................................................................ 76 7.3 Maintenance of Specified Habitats ................................................................... 76 7.4 Creation of New Habitats.................................................................................. 76 7.5 Maintenance of Field Boundaries ..................................................................... 77 7.6 Landscape Impact ............................................................................................. 78 7.7 Heather moorland.............................................................................................. 78 7.8 Vertebrates ........................................................................................................ 79 7.9 Research requirements...................................................................................... 79 8 DISCUSSION........................................................................................................... 81 8.1 Water................................................................................................................. 81 8.2 Is an upland farm only part of a system? .......................................................... 81 8.3 Farmer aims and attitudes ................................................................................. 82 8.4 Conversion criteria............................................................................................ 82 8.5 Capital issues .................................................................................................... 83 8.6 Agri-environment Schemes .............................................................................. 83 8.7 Organic Standards and technical issues ............................................................ 84 8.8 Standards Development .................................................................................... 84 8.9 Organic Inspections .......................................................................................... 85 8.10 Research Requirements..................................................................................... 85 8.11 Education and Dissemination ........................................................................... 86 8.12 Scale, time and climate change......................................................................... 87 8.13 Farm viability.................................................................................................... 87 9 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................. 89 9.1 Capital and labour issues ............................................................................... 91 9.2 Education and dissemination ........................................................................ 91 9.3 Policy changes ................................................................................................ 91 9.4 Technical issues.............................................................................................. 92 9.5 Standards Issues.............................................................................................. 92 9.6 Agri Environment- ......................................................................................... 93 10 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................. 95 ACRONYMS………………………………………………………………………... 102 APPENDIX 1 ………………………………………………………………… 103 Organic Farming Centre for Wales Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming in the Hills and Uplands EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. Organic farming is based on principles of co-existence with natural