Style in Science Fiction and Fantasy Studies in Stylometry by Naomi K. Fraser B.A. (Hons)(Newcastle) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Newcastle Australia November, 2017 This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo. Signed Naomi Fraser Acknowledgments My first encounter with stylometry was due to Professor Hugh Craig who has subsequently backed this project with every resource necessary to see it to completion. Associate Professor Caroline Webb has brought her expertise to bear on this project with flair and close attention to detail. I am thankful to both my supervisors for their patient endurance. This project would not have gotten far off the ground without the technical assistance from Dr. Alexis Antonia, Dr. Jack Elliott, Dr Bill Pascoe and Emeritus Professor John Burrows from the Centre for Literary and Linguistic Computing at the University of Newcastle, Australia. I also want to thank Ben Brawn for his mathematical help, Ruth Tapp for her editing services and Dr. Jill McKeowen who has offered much support throughout the process. The development of this project was aided by the members of the McMullin Building who have always offered me friendship and encouragement. In particular, I wish to thank the HDR cohort and those who occupy the once empty desks of MC148 — my fellow travellers, you have brought life and fellowship to what was once a lonely road. Thank you to my family and friends for your support and for reminding me of my purpose. The final acknowledgment is to my husband, John, who made it his mission to read the books I talk about, to understand my arguments and who has supported the vision for this project since before I could articulate it myself. Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................ iv Abstract....................................................................................................................................... vi Preface ....................................................................................................................................... viii Style in the Service of Genre .............................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Style ............................................................................................................................ 11 Genre Theory ............................................................................................................ 25 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 37 Stylometry in the Service of Style ................................................................... 42 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 42 The Scope of Stylometry.......................................................................................... 43 2.2.1 Stylometry and the Digital Humanities ........................................................ 46 2.2.2 Stylometry and Authorial Attribution .......................................................... 49 2.2.3 Stylometry and the Questions “Beyond” Authorship ................................ 52 2.2.4 The Interpretational Gap ................................................................................. 61 Introduction to Principal Component Analysis................................................... 64 2.3.1 Applying PCA .................................................................................................. 67 2.3.2 Proportional Frequencies ................................................................................ 69 2.3.3 Word Variables ................................................................................................. 70 2.3.4 Correlation versus Covariance ....................................................................... 70 2.3.5 Interpreting PCA Results ................................................................................ 76 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 77 2.4.1 Selecting Texts .................................................................................................. 77 2.4.2 Counting Words ............................................................................................... 79 2.4.3 Applying PCA .................................................................................................. 80 2.4.4 Interpreting Results ......................................................................................... 80 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 83 Contextualising the Style of Early Science Fiction and Fantasy ................. 84 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 84 3.2 A Computational Study of Style ............................................................................ 91 3.2.1 The Styles at the Extremes of PC1 .................................................................. 95 3.2.2 The Style of Lilith .............................................................................................. 99 3.2.3 The Style of The Time Machine .................................................................... 104 3.2.4 Utopian Styles ................................................................................................. 113 3.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 118 The Case for Olaf Stapledon .......................................................................... 121 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 121 4.2 Stapledon and Wells .............................................................................................. 124 4.3 Stapledon and Woolf ............................................................................................. 142 4.3.1 The Closest: Sirius and Orlando .................................................................... 145 4.3.2 The Extremes: Star Maker and The Years ..................................................... 149 4.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 153 Stylistic Variation in the Harry Potter Sequence .......................................... 158 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 158 New Measures of Variation .................................................................................. 163 5.2.1 Three Stylistic Variations .............................................................................. 167 5.2.2 Measuring Change in Chapters ................................................................... 178 5.2.3 Measuring Change in Direct Speech and Narration ................................. 183 Variations in other Series ...................................................................................... 190 5.3.1 The Complete Chronicles of Narnia .................................................................. 191 5.3.2 Young Wizards ................................................................................................. 199 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 206 Conclusion: Expanding the Verbal Universe ...................................................................... 210 Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 216 Appendix A ......................................................................................................................... 216 Appendix B ......................................................................................................................... 217 Appendix C ......................................................................................................................... 219 Appendix D ......................................................................................................................... 219 Appendix E ......................................................................................................................... 221 Appendix F ........................................................................................................................