DICTIONARY OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE DICTIONARY OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Andrew Petersen London and New York First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002. Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 First published in paperback 1999 © 1996 Andrew Petersen All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-415-06084-2 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-21332-0 (pbk) ISBN 0-203-20387-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-20390-9 (Glassbook Format) Contents Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Entries 1 Appendix The Mediterranean World showing principal historic cities and sites 320 The Middle East and Central Asia showing principal historic cities and sites 321 Dedication This book is dedicated to my friend Jamie Cameron (1962–95) historian of James V of Scotland. Preface In one of the quarters of the city is the Muhammadan town, where the Muslims have their cathedral, mosque, hospice and bazar. They have also a qadi and a shaykh, for in every one of the cities of China there must always be a shaykh al- Islam, to whom all matters concerning Muslims are referred. Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1929 Abu Abdallah Mahammad of Tangier, also known monuments. In order to aid the reader’s appreciation as Ibn Battuta, is the most famous of the Arab of this relationship, vernacular architecture has been travellers. His journeys started with a pilgrimage included in regional summaries, which also discuss (hajj) to Mecca and afterwards he always tried to the geographical and cultural character of an area. travel within a Muslim context whether he was in As a balance to the regional approach there are also Timbuktu or China. What is notable about these historical accounts dealing with particular dynasties accounts is that they deal with Muslim communities or historic styles. which are remote from the western stereotype of The encyclopedic nature of this work has meant Muslim society. For example most general works on that there is little room for theoretical discussions of Islamic architecture tend to confine themselves to aesthetics or meaning. This is not because these are the Middle East and North Africa, neglect-ing the unimportant considerations but because these are centuries old Islamic heritage of South-East Asia, issues best discussed in a different, more selec-tive India, East and West Africa. It is an aim of this book format. The main purpose of this book is to provide to include as many as possible of these less well basic information which includes defini-tions of known Muslim cultures whose populations now architectural terms, descriptions of specific outnumber those of the central Islamic lands. monuments and summaries of regional and historic As a corollary to this approach there has been an groups. Attached to each entry there is a short list of attempt to include vernacular architecture rather books for further reading which refers the user to than dealing exclusively with well known the principal works on the subject. It is hoped that monumental architecture. As well as being important the information provided will enable the reader to in its own right vernacular architecture provides an gain some appreciation of the diversity and genius architectural context for the more famous of Muslim culture. Acknowledgements First, I must thank my parents who have enabled me to Archaeology in Iraq, the British Institute at Amman pursue my interest in this subject. Gwendolyn Leick gave for Archaeology and History, the British Institute in me the idea for the book in the first place and subsequently Eastern Africa, the International Merv Project, Dr encouraged me in the long process of writing. Julian Reade and the Turkish Government. The research that I undertook for the book was Preparation of the manuscript and drawings was of two kinds—library based and field work. The helped by a number of people including Heather library research was carried out in a number of Nixon, Charles Craske, Crispian Pickles, David institutions in Europe and the Middle East and I Myres and Kate Cheyne. Photographs were provided would like to thank everyone who helped me with by a number of people and institutions, in particular references or information, in particular: Michael I would like to thank Kerry Abbott, Pat and Charles Given, Tony Grey, StJohn Simpson, Benjamin Pickles, Aithie, Susan Bailey, Rebecca Foote, Cherry Pickles Mark Horton, Alistair Northedge, Matt Thompson and James Allan. Here I would also like to express and Jeremy Johns. The field research was usually my thanks to Mark Barragry and Seth Denbo both carried out as an incidental part of other projects. of Routledge for their enthusiasm and patience. Several individuals and institutions have been Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to particularly helpful; these are: the British School of my wife Heather Nixon who tolerated and helped Archaeology in Jerusalem, the British School of with this book for so long. A Abbasids (Soghdian) and later, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Seljuk. Many early Abbasid Dynasty which ruled most of the Islamic world between structures such as the palace of Ukhaidhir bear a 750 and 945. striking resemblance to Sassanian architecture, as they used the same techniques (vaults made without In 750 CE there was a revolution against Umayyad centring) and materials (mud brick, baked brick and rule which began in eastern Iran and rapidly spread roughly hewn stone laid in mortar), and built to over the whole empire. The Umayyads were totally similar designs (solid buttress towers). Central Asian destroyed except for one prince who fled to Spain and influence was already present in Sassanian established the Umayyad dynasty there. The newly architecture but it was reinforced by the Islamic established Abbasids decided to move the capital from conquest of Central Asia and the incorporation of a Damascus to a city further east, first Raqqa was chosen large number of Turkic troops into the army. Central and then in 762 Baghdad was founded by the Abbasid Asian influence is seen most clearly at Samarra where caliph al-Mansur. Baghdad grew to be one of the the wall paintings and some of the stucco work biggest and most populous cities in the world based resemble that of the Soghdian palaces at Panjikent. around Mansur’s famous round city. In 836 the caliph The Abbasid architecture of the twelfth and al-Mutassim was unhappy about clashes between the thirteenth centuries is essentially Seljuk architecture local population and his troops so he established a built with Iraqi materials. new capital further north on the Tigris at Samarra. In addition to the various influences upon it, early During this period the power of the caliphate began Abbasid architecture can be seen to have developed to decline and control over distant provinces was its own characteristics. One of the most notable loosened. Several local dynasties grew up including features of the Abbasid cities of Baghdad and Samarra the Tulunids in Egypt, the Aghlabids in Ifriqiyya and is their vast scale. This is most clearly demonstrated the Samanids in Khurassan (eastern Iran). Internal at Samarra with its extensive palaces and mosques troubles in Samarra caused the caliph al Mutamid to stretched out for more than 40 km along the banks of move back to Baghdad in 889; at this time Abbasid the Tigris. The scale of the site led to the development power outside Iraq was purely nominal. In 945 the of new forms: thus the great spiral minarets of the Abbasids were replaced by the Shia Buwaihid amirs Great Mosque and the Abu Dulaf Mosque were never as rulers of Iraq and Iran. For the next two hundred repeated elsewhere (with the possible exception of years the Abbasids remained nominal caliphs with the Ibn Tulun Mosque). Other developments had far- no real authority. In the mid-twelfth century the reaching consequences; for example, the three stucco Abbasids were able to reassert some authority when types developed at Samarra rapidly spread the Seljuk ruler Sultan Muhamad abandoned his siege throughout the Islamic world (e.g. the Abbasid of Baghdad. During the reign of Caliph al-Nasir (1179– mosque at Balkh in Afghanistan) and continued to be 1225) the Abbasids were able to gain control over used centuries later. much of present-day Iraq. The Mongol invasions and sack of Baghdad in 1258 dealt a final blow to the See also: Aghlabids, Baghdad, Balkh, Iraq, political aspirations of the Abbasids. Samarra, Tulunids, Ukhaidhir Although Abbasid architecture covers a vast area from North Africa to western India, the majority of ablaq extant buildings are in the Abbasid homeland of Iraq. Abbasid architecture was influenced by three Term used to describe alternating light and dark courses architectural traditions—Sassanian, Central Asian of masonry. 1 Afghanistan Azzam Palace, Damascus. Eighteenth-century example of ablaq masonry, ©Rebecca Foote It is thought that the origin of this decorative churches of Monza, Siena and Orvieto and a four- technique may derive from the Byzantine use of storey palace in Genoa. alternating courses of white ashlar stone and orange baked brick.