TABLE OF CONTENTS ALTERNATIVES.....................................................................................................................................1 OFFENCES ...........................................................................................................................................1 REVERSE BURDENS.............................................................................................................................1 STRICT LIABILITY..................................................................................................................................2 PENALTIES ...........................................................................................................................................2 INFRINGEMENT NOTICES......................................................................................................................2 CIVIL PENALTIES ..................................................................................................................................3 CIVIL JURISDICTION .............................................................................................................................3 MORE DETAIL NEEDED?.......................................................................................................................3 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 2004 ..........................................................................................................6 OVERVIEW ...........................................................................................................................................7 THE OBLIGATION TO ACT CONSISTENTLY WITH HUMAN RIGHTS..........................................................7 CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS...............................................................................................................7 MEANING AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RIGHTS ................................................................................8 JUSTIFIED LIMITATIONS TO HUMAN RIGHTS .........................................................................................8 CRIMINAL CODE 2002.......................................................................................................................10 FRAMING OFFENCES AND THE CRIMINAL CODE 2002......................................................................10 OTHER RELEVANT CRIMINAL LAWS....................................................................................................10 DEMOCRACY AND THE RULE OF LAW.................................................................................................11 REGULATORY MODELS ......................................................................................................................11 CRIMINAL OR NOT?............................................................................................................................12 CONSEQUENCES OF CONVICTION .....................................................................................................12 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS ........................................................................................................................14 FAULT ELEMENTS ..............................................................................................................................14 CONNECTING THE FAULT ELEMENTS TO PHYSICAL ELEMENTS .........................................................15 INTENTION (SECTION 18)...................................................................................................................15 KNOWLEDGE (SECTION 19)...............................................................................................................15 RECKLESSNESS (SECTION 20)..........................................................................................................15 NEGLIGENCE (SECTION 21)...............................................................................................................16 CODE OFFENCES OF GENERAL APPLICATION....................................................................................17 STANDARD TERMINOLOGY IN THE ACT STATUTE BOOK ...................................................................18 KILLING, HARM ETC TO BE TREATED AS RESULTS .............................................................................19 EVIDENTIAL BURDEN..........................................................................................................................20 LEGAL BURDEN ..................................................................................................................................20 STRICT LIABILITY OR ABSOLUTE LIABILITY FOR ELEMENTS OF OFFENCES........................................20 PRESUMPTIONS .................................................................................................................................21 REVERSE BURDENS IDENTIFIED IN THE OFFENCE .............................................................................22 EXPLANATORY STATEMENTS.............................................................................................................22 CASE LAW ..........................................................................................................................................22 MISTAKE OF FACT — STRICT LIABILITY OFFENCES ONLY..................................................................23 LACK OF CAPACITY — CHILDREN......................................................................................................23 MISTAKE OR IGNORANCE OF LAW......................................................................................................23 INTERVENING CONDUCT OR EVENT ...................................................................................................23 DURESS .............................................................................................................................................24 SUDDEN OR EXTRAORDINARY EMERGENCY......................................................................................24 LAWFUL AUTHORITY...........................................................................................................................24 PARTICULAR EXCEPTIONS:................................................................................................................24 ‘WITHOUT REASONABLE EXCUSE’ .....................................................................................................24 AVERMENTS AND EVIDENTIARY CERTIFICATES .................................................................................25 STRICT LIABILITY................................................................................................................................26 ABSOLUTE LIABILITY ..........................................................................................................................26 APPLICATION OF STRICT AND ABSOLUTE LIABILITY OFFENCES IN THE ACT.....................................26 CRITERIA FOR STRICT LIABILITY OR ABSOLUTE LIABILITY..................................................................28 RELEVANT REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................29 PENALTIES SHOULD BE RELATIVE TO SERIOUSNESS OR PREVALENCE OF BEHAVIOUR....................31 IMPRISONMENT ..................................................................................................................................31 PENALTY UNITS..................................................................................................................................32 PENALTIES ALLOWED IN SUBORDINATE LEGISLATION .......................................................................32 INDICTABLE AND SUMMARY OFFENCES.............................................................................................32 INVESTIGATION COSTS ......................................................................................................................33 MANDATORY OR MINIMUM PENALTIES...............................................................................................33 SETTING A PENALTY: ADEQUACY ......................................................................................................34 SEPARATE PENALTY FOR EACH OFFENCE.........................................................................................34 INCREASED PENALTIES FOR CERTAIN CLASSES OF OFFENCES.........................................................34 FAULT ELEMENTS...............................................................................................................................35 CORPORATIONS.................................................................................................................................35 FINE / IMPRISONMENT RATIO .............................................................................................................35 MAXIMUM IMPRISONMENT TERMS LESS THAN 6 MONTHS .................................................................36 CONTINUING OFFENCES ....................................................................................................................36 ALTERNATIVE SANCTIONS .................................................................................................................36 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING INFRINGEMENT NOTICE OFFENCES .........................................................37 UNSUITABLE OFFENCES ....................................................................................................................38