FIRST AMENDMENT RELIGION AND EXPRESSION CONTENTS Page Religion ....................................................................................................................................... 1013 An Overview ........................................................................................................................ 1013 Scholarly Commentary ................................................................................................ 1014 Court Tests Applied to Legislation Affecting Religion ............................................. 1016 Government Neutrality in Religious Disputes .......................................................... 1020 Establishment of Religion .................................................................................................. 1022 Financial Assistance to Church-Related Institutions ............................................... 1022 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Released Time ....... 1043 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Prayers and Bible Reading ..................................................................................................................... 1044 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Curriculum Re- striction ..................................................................................................................... 1048 Access of Religious Groups to School Property ......................................................... 1048 Tax Exemptions of Religious Property ...................................................................... 1051 Exemption of Religious Organizations from Generally Applicable Laws ............... 1052 Sunday Closing Laws .................................................................................................. 1053 Conscientious Objection .............................................................................................. 1054 Regulation of Religious Solicitation ........................................................................... 1055 Religion in Governmental Observances ..................................................................... 1055 Religious Displays on Government Property ............................................................ 1056 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................................... 1058 Free Exercise of Religion ................................................................................................... 1059 The Belief-Conduct Distinction .................................................................................. 1061 The Mormon Cases ...................................................................................................... 1063 The Jehovah’s Witnesses Cases ................................................................................. 1064 Free Exercise Exemption from General Governmental Requirements ................... 1066 Religious Test Oaths ................................................................................................... 1075 Religious Disqualification ........................................................................................... 1075 Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press ............................................................................. 1076 Adoption and Common Law Background ......................................................................... 1076 Freedom of Expression: The Philosophical Basis ............................................................. 1082 Freedom of Expression: Is There a Difference Between Speech and Press? ................. 1083 The Doctrine of Prior Restraint ......................................................................................... 1086 Injunctions and the Press in Fair Trial Cases .......................................................... 1088 Obscenity and Prior Restraint ................................................................................... 1090 Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests ......................... 1091 Clear and Present Danger .......................................................................................... 1093 The Adoption of Clear and Present Danger .............................................................. 1096 Contempt of Court and Clear and Present Danger .................................................. 1097 Clear and Present Danger Revised: Dennis .............................................................. 1100 Balancing ..................................................................................................................... 1101 The ‘‘Absolutist’’ View of the First Amendment, with a Note on ‘‘Preferred Posi- tion’’ ........................................................................................................................... 1106 1009 VerDate Apr 15 2004 09:05 Jun 25, 2004 Jkt 077500 PO 00000 Frm 00001 Fmt 8221 Sfmt 8221 C:\CONAN\CON023.XXX PRFM99 PsN: CON023 1010 Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press—Continued Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests—Continued Of Other Tests and Standards: Vagueness, Overbreadth, Least Restrictive Means, and Others .................................................................................................. 1107 Is There a Present Test? ............................................................................................. 1109 Freedom of Belief ................................................................................................................ 1110 Flag Salute Cases ........................................................................................................ 1111 Imposition of Consequences for Holding Certain Beliefs ......................................... 1112 Right of Association ............................................................................................................ 1114 Political Association .................................................................................................... 1120 Conflict Between Organization and Members .......................................................... 1123 Maintenance of National Security and the First Amendment ....................................... 1126 Punishment of Advocacy ............................................................................................. 1126 Compelled Registration of Communist Party ........................................................... 1129 Punishment for Membership in an Organization Which Engages in Proscribed Advocacy ................................................................................................................... 1129 Disabilities Attaching to Membership in Proscribed Organizations ....................... 1130 Employment Restrictions and Loyalty Oaths ........................................................... 1133 Legislative Investigations and the First Amendment .............................................. 1137 Interference With War Effort ..................................................................................... 1138 Suppression of Communist Propaganda in the Mails .............................................. 1139 Exclusion of Certain Aliens as a First Amendment Problem .................................. 1139 Particular Government Regulations That Restrict Expression ...................................... 1140 Government as Employer: Political and Other Outside Activities .......................... 1141 Government as Employer: Free Expression Generally ............................................ 1144 Government as Educator ............................................................................................ 1149 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Elections ................................. 1154 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Lobbying ................................. 1162 Government as Regulator of Labor Relations ........................................................... 1163 Government as Investigator: Reporter’s Privilege .................................................... 1164 Government and the Conduct of Trials ..................................................................... 1166 Government as Administrator of Prisons .................................................................. 1170 Government and Power of the Purse ......................................................................... 1173 Governmental Regulation of Communications Industries .............................................. 1176 Commercial Speech ..................................................................................................... 1176 Taxation ....................................................................................................................... 1186 Labor Relations ........................................................................................................... 1188 Antitrust Laws ............................................................................................................ 1188 Radio and Television ................................................................................................... 1189 Governmentally Compelled Right of Reply to Newspapers ..................................... 1193 Regulation of Cable Television ................................................................................... 1193 Government Restraint of Content of Expression