appendix 7 Chronology—Timeline Azanian Trio Timeline Pharaoh Sahure (2553–2541B.C.) conducted maritime expedition on East African coast.1 c. 1493/2B.C. Pharaoh Hatsheput expedition to Punt.2 Late 8th–early 7th centuries B.C. Minean Mukarribs Yathʿamar and Kariba-il.3 c. 750B.C. Sabaean Kingdom 1st period.4 c. 700B.C. Minaean Kingdom with centre in Jawf. Capital Qarnaw.5 Pre 700B.C. Ausan traded with E.A. Coast.6 c. 610B.C. Sabaean Kingdom 2nd period.7 Capital Maʾrib. Pre 550B.C. Minneans conquered by Saba.8 c. 550B.C. Arabs from Yemen cross Red Sea and settle in Habash9 c. 510B.C. Egyptian voyages to Punt.10 c. 450B.C. Mālik Kariba-il Watar.11 Ḥaḍramawt Kingdom. Capital Shabwah.12 c. 400B.C. Qataban Kingdom. Capital Tamnaʿ (Kuḥlan)13 1 R. Hennig, Terrae Incognitae. Eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtig- sten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der darüber vorliegenden Originalbe- richte. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1944, vol. 1, pp. 5–13; Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 34. 2 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 34. 3 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 52. Sabaean period 750–115B.C.; Minaean c. 700–200B.C.; Qataban c. 400–50B.C.; Ḥaḍramawt c. 450B.C.–100A.D. Huzayyin 1941 p. 33. 4 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 52. 5 Hitti, History of the Arabs, pp. 52, 54f. 6 Gray, History of Zanzibar, p. 11. 7 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 54. 8 Huzayyin 1941 p. 34. 9 G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, Chronology of African History. London: Oxford University Press, 1973, p. 6. 10 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 7. 11 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 54. The Periplus dates him to c. 100A.D. Is it a title or another person with the same name? See L. Casson, The Periplus Mais Erythraei. Princeton, Uni- versity Press 1989 refers Beeston who maintains that the earliest inscriptions only allow a Himyar timeline from first century A.D. 12 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 55. 13 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 55. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2020 | doi:10.1163/9789004258600_013James McL. Ritchie and Sigvard von Sicard - 9789004258600 Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 11:42:08PM via free access chronology—timeline 199 4th century A.D. Axum Palace & Steles.14 115B.C.–525A.D. Himyar15 Capital Ẓafar c. 41–54A.D. Diogenes voyages along East African coast.16 c. 106A.D. Periplus. Kharibaël Himyari Tubba ruler of former Ausan kingdom.17 273–297A.D. ʿAbd Kelal king of Yemen.18 c. 320–355A.D. Aezanas son of Ella Amida, king of Axum.19 333A.D. Aezanas adopts Christian tradtion.20 c. 340–378A.D. Axumite occupation of Himyar.21 c. 385–420A.D. Abū Karib Asʿad alias Abū Karib Asʿad Kāmil.22 c. 467A.D. Sharahbil Yakkuf Himyar ruler.23 c. 514–543A.D. Caleb (Ela Atsheba) king of Axum.24 517–525A.D. Dhū Nuwās Ḥimyarī Tubbaʿ 517A.D. Caleb sends fleet against Himyar.25 525A.D. Dhū Nuwās, the last Himyari Tubbaʿ died.26 Cosmas Indicopleustes.27 525–570A.D. Axum rules Himyar.28 531 & c. 540A.D. Byzantine missions to Aksum.29 564A.D. Julianus sent by Emperor Justinian (527–565) to Himyarite king- dom.30 c. 570A.D. Axumite defeat at Mecca.31 14 Hitti (History of the Arabs, p. 57) dates this to the first century A.D. 15 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 60; Huzayyin 1942. p. 34; Gen. 10:3. 16 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 19. 17 Hennig, Terrae Incognitae, vol. 1, pp. 412–415.; Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 20; Hunt- ingford., Periplus, p. 151. 18 Hennig, Terrae Incognitae, vol. 2, p. 16. 19 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 25. 20 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 26. 21 Hitti 1961 p. 60. 22 Hitti, History of the Arabs, p. 60. 23 Moberg, Book of the Himyarites, p. lx. 24 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 31. 25 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 31. 26 A.I. Katsh, Judaism in Islam: Biblical and Talmudic Backgrounds of the Koran and Its Com- mentaries. Columbia: New York University Press, 1954, p. xviii. 27 Allen, Swahili Origins, p. 58; Moberg, Book of the Himyarites, p. lxviii; Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 31. 28 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 31; Hennig, Terrae Incognitae, vol. 2, p. 50. 29 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, pp. 31, 32. 30 Hennig, Terrae Incognitae, vol. 2, p. 52. 31 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 32. James McL. Ritchie and Sigvard von Sicard - 9789004258600 Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 11:42:08PM via free access 200 appendix 7 572–628A.D. Sāsānid domination of Arabia.32 615A.D. Muslims seek refuge in Aksum.33 691A.D. Sulaymān and Saʿīd leave ʿUmān for East Africa.34 c. 696A.D. Syrians settlements at Pate, Lamu, etc.35 730A.D. Arab settlement in Pemba.36 c. 740A.D. Zaydīs settle on East African coast.37 c. 766A.D. Caliph al-Manṣūr’s expedition to East Africa.38 c. 786–809A.D. Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd said to have established settlements on the East African coast.39 837A.D. Caliph Abū ʾl-Abbās ʿAbdallah al-Maʾmūn sent a military expedition to Malindi.40 c. 850A.D. Tuan Ch’eng-shih description of East Africa.41 c. 887A.D. Foundation of Mogadishu. c. 915A.D. Al-Masʿūdī’s description of East Africa.42 9th–15th centuries omitted in Kitāb al-Zunūj.43 1071A.D. Zanj visit to China. Also 1081–1083.44 c. 1100A.D. Several Muslim settlements on East African coast. Stone mosques.45 32 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 32. Sāsānid dynasty 226–641. 33 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 33. 34 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 36. 35 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 37. Cerulli, Somalia, vol. 1, pp. 238, 266, 303, 333: Caliph ʿAbd al-Mālik bin Marwān (65/685–686/705) sent a military expedition to East Africa in 75/694. 36 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 38. 37 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 38. 38 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 40. Cerulli, Somalia, vol. 1, pp. 238, 267: Caliph Abū Jaʿfar ʿAbdallah al-Manṣūr (136/754–158/775) sent a representative to East Africa 149/766. 39 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 40. CerullI, Somalia, vol. 1, pp. 239, 267, 304, 334: Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (170/786–193/809) sent military expedition to the East African coast in 189/804. 40 Cerulli, Somalia, vol. 1, pp. 239, 267, 304, 334: Caliph Abū ʾl-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allah al-Maʾmūn (198/813–218/833). 41 Allen, Swahili Origins, p. 26: Tuan Ch’eng-shih (d. 863); P. Wheatley, “Analecta Sino- Africana recensa”, in H.N. Chittick and R.O. Rotberg (eds), East Africa and the Orient: Cultural Syntheses in Pre-Colonial Times. New York: Africana, 1975, 76–114, p. 82; Freeman- Grenville 1962 p. 8. 42 Freeman-Grenville, East African Coast, pp. 14–17: Abū ʾl-Ḥasan ʿAlī al-Masʿūdī (d. 956). 43 Cerulli, Somalia, vol. 1, pp. 239, 267, 269. 44 Horton, Archaeology, p. 21. 45 H.N. Chittick, “The ‘Shirazi’ Colonization of East Africa”, in J.D. Fage & R.A. Oliver (eds), Papers in African Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970, 257–276, p. 275. James McL. Ritchie and Sigvard von Sicard - 9789004258600 Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 11:42:08PM via free access chronology—timeline 201 498/1105 First dated Muslim epitaph at Barāwa.46 500/1107 Kizimkazi Mosque inscription.47 c. 1150 Al-Idrīsī’s description of East Africa.48 614/1217 Earliest epitaphs at Mogadishu.49 1204 Traditional founding date of Pate and Vumba. Sulṭān Yūsuf b. Alawi at Tumbatu.50 1224 Yāqūt b. ʿAbdallah al-Ḥamāwi al-Rūmi’s description of Pemba.51 1225 Chao Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chi—Gazetteer of Foreigners.52 c. 1300 Abū ʾl-Fida’s description of East Africa.53 1238 Mogadishu Friday Mosque minaret completed.54 c. 1250 Fakhr al-Dīn dynasty established in Mogadishu.55 1265 Final date for a hoard of Chinese coins, Zanzibar.56 1268 Arbaʿa Rukun mosque mihrāb, Mogadishu completed.57 1269 Fakhr al-Dīn mosque, Mogadishu completed.58 1286 Ibn Saʿīd records Indian settlers in Eastern Africa.59 c. 1291–1339 Fumomadi the Great, Sultan of Pate.60 1322 Abū Bakr b. Muḥammad, Sultan of Mogadishu issues dated coins in East Africa.61 c. 1330 Sor Leone Vivaldi in Mogadishu.62 Jordanus describes East Africa as ‘India tertia’.63 46 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 52; Horton, Archaeology, p. 419. 47 Kirkman 1957 p. 23; Kirkman, Men and Monuments, pp. 16, 175f.; Chittick, “‘Shirazi’ Colo- nization”, p. 241. 48 Freeman-Grenville, East African Coast, pp. 19–20: Abū ʿAbdallah Muḥammad ibn Muḥam- mad al-Idrīsī (d. 1166). 49 Freeman-Grenville & Martin 1973 p. 102. 50 Gray, History of Zanzibar, p. 16; Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 58. 51 Gray, History of Zanzibar, pp. 16ff. 52 Wheatley, “Analecta”, p. 86; Freeman-Grenville, East African Coast, pp. 21–22. 53 Freeman-Grenville, East African Coast, pp. 23–24. 54 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 59. 55 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 60. 56 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 61. See also Freeman-Grenville, MedievalHistory, pp. 35, 175, 184, 185. 57 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 61. 58 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 61. 59 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 61. 60 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 63. 61 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 67. 62 Cerulli, Somalia, vol. 1, p. 167. 63 Freeman-Grenville, Chronology, p. 67. James McL. Ritchie and Sigvard von Sicard - 9789004258600 Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 11:42:08PM via free access 202 appendix 7 1331–1332 Ibn Baṭṭūṭa’s visit.64 1339–1392 ʿUmar b. Muḥammad I, Sultan of Pate claims control of coast from Mogadishu to Kerimba islands.65 1364 First mention of pillar tomb in East Africa.66 c.