“Ancient Maresha and Eleutheropolis (City of the Free)” The Impact of Change and of Roman Occupation On The Cities, The Hinterland and The People By Jean Margaret Swanson Bachelor of Arts (Honours), UWA This thesis is presented for the degree of Master of Arts of the University of Western Australia School of Humanities (Discipline of Classics and Ancient History), Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Year of Submission: 2012 1 THE ELEUTHEROPOLIS MOSAIC AT CHURCH OF ST. STEPHEN UMM-ER-RASAS, JORDAN (See Ch. 4: 62) 2 ABSTRACT In this thesis I have explored a particular section of the history of Israel – the period from 500 BCE to 650 CE (which encompasses the periods of sovereignty of the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman authorities), and a particular section of the land – the ancient Biblical Tel Maresha and the nearby town of Beit Guvrin, which became the Roman city of Eleutheropolis. The evidence consists of literary records and archaeological exploration reports together with first-hand research, combined to provide insights on the lives of the people of this time, both urban and rural, their homes, foods, customs, beliefs, and if/how these changed as one conqueror succeeded another. Whilst the background to the thesis necessarily includes more ancient historical data, the emphasis is on the late Hellenistic and the Roman periods – 1st c BCE to 7th c CE – taking into account the various influences already present and the way in which these were affected by new ideas. Maresha was of significant importance in the early history of Judaea. It was located at the junction of a number of major roads, close to the main trade route which led from the north all the way to Egypt and less than a day’s journey from the major Mediterranean ports of Gaza and Ascalon. During the Roman period, as first Beit Guvrin then Eleutheropolis, it became a major city, its Greco-Roman name conferred by Emperor Septimius Severus, who raised its status as the main administrative centre for the entire region. Agricultural production was prolific and varied and many small manufacturing entities were established. The thesis begins with an Introduction (Chapter One), setting the historical timeline of events leading to the period under research. Chapter Two examines the natural environment of the region, including its climate, landscape and land use. It also includes a report on the infrastructure of the area, particularly the road system. Chapter Three is on Maresha, its history and the results of archaeological exploration so far undertaken at the site. Both the upper and lower cities are discussed as well as the huge cave complexes discovered beneath them, and what they represent. Chapter Four details the known history of Beit Guvrin/Eleutheropolis and the material culture discovered to date. It discusses what life may have been like for the people of a Roman City in Judaea during the early centuries of the Common Era. Chapter Five presents an in-depth look at the immediate hinterland of these two cities – the people, the towns and villages, the large villas, farm production, and the way in which these various aspects may have changed over the period under research. Chapter Six gives a commentary on the Romanization of Judaea and just what this may have meant to the people who lived under Roman Rule and includes the beginnings of the Christian Church 3 and the subsequent effect of this. The Summary and Conclusion draws together the preceding strands of the thesis to show the evolution of the way of life within this region, particularly during the Roman period. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pge ABSTRACT 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 7 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9 ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY 11 CHAPTER ONE – Introduction 14 CHAPTER TWO – The Natural Environment, its Landscape and Infrastructure 21 The Landscape 21 The Environment 24 Climate – 24 Land Use – 29 Infrastructure 31 Roads – 31 Roadside Inns – 35 The Modern Road from Jerusalem to Bet Guvrin – 36 CHAPTER THREE – Urban Development at Maresha 39 The Upper City 42 The Lower City 43 The Caves of Maresha 46 Subterranean Complex 57 – 50 Subterranean Complex 90 – 51 Subterranean Complex 89 – 52 Cemeteries 56 CHAPTER FOUR – Eleutheropolis - City of the Free 61 CHAPTER FIVE – The Hinterland 74 Decline in Production 77 Soil Exhaustion – 79 Denudation – 79 Brigandage – 94 5 Taxes – 79 Agriculture 80 Animals 83 Clothing 83 Tanning 83 Towns 84 Villages 86 Villas 88 CHAPTER SIX – Romanization in Judaea (Life Under Roman Rule and the Rise of the 94 Early Christian Church) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY 111 APPENDICES 1. Towns and Villages in the hinterland of Maresha and 117 Eleutheropolis identified from the Onomasticon of Eusebius of Caesarea 2. Listing of villages in the territory of Eleutheropolis 118 As identified by Eusebius in his Onomasticon. I 6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Eleutheropolis mosaic at the Church of St. Stephen 2 At Umm-er-Rasas, Jordan Fig. 2 Map of Judaea/Syria Palaestina, Western Arabia 13 Fig. 3 The Mountain of Judah and the Shephelah 22 Fig. 4 Road System in the area of Eleutheropolis 31 Fig. 5 Remains of a Secondary Road discovered in the Shephelah 34 Fig. 6 Maresha and Eleutheropolis and the site of the Roman Villa 38 Fig. 7 Maresha and its connections 40 Fig. 8 Bliss and Macalister’s Plan of the Upper City of Maresha 42 Of the Hellenistic period Fig. 9 Plan of Complex 57 51 Fig. 10 Plan of Complex 90 52 Fig. 11 Plan of Complex 89 53 Fig. 12 Example of a stairwell excavated in a Maresha cave 55 Fig. 13 Interesting Finds from Day One of our Excavations, including 55 Drinking bowls, oil lamps, hair pins and various metal objects. Fig. 14 Inside Tomb of Apollophanes in 2010 58 Fig. 15 An aerial photograph of Beit Guvrin (German = Bet Dschibrin) 63 Taken in 1918 Fig. 16 Example of a Bell Cave 65 Fig. 17 The Amphitheatre at Eleutheropolis 68 Fig. 18 Part of the perimeter wall and passageway of the Amphitheatre 68 7 Fig. 19 Coinage from Eleutheropolis - Septimius Severus 71 Fig. 20 Coinage from Eleutheropolis - Elagabalus 71 Fig. 21 The Restored Crusader Church Arches at Eleutheropolis 73 Fig. 22 Residential Complex Phase I 89 Fig. 20 Plan of the Mosaic Room in Room A3 of the Residential Complex 90 Fig. 21 Villa Complex Phase II 92 App. 1 Map of the towns and villages in the hinterland of Maresha 117 And Eleutheropolis, identified from the Onomasticon of Eusebius of Caesarea. 8 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In May, 2001 I first arrived in Beit Guvrin following an enthralling trip through several Middle Eastern countries, including the major part of Israel itself. As we settled ourselves in at the kibbutz where we would be staying it was exciting to realise that the tel in the near distance was Maresha, known from the Bible, and that was where we would be excavating. “But that’s not all”, one of the archaeologists told us, “In the fields behind the kibbutz is an entire Roman city. Most of it is still underground, waiting to be excavated, but I will take you on a tour of the ruins which can be seen”. That was my introduction to Eleutheropolis. In the time I spent at Beit Guvrin I tried to find out all I could about the history of the area. Tel Maresha was now part of the Beit Guvrin National Park and its history had been deeply researched as far as was possible, given that it too was only about 10% excavated. Having never previously heard the name Eleutheropolis I thought it must have been a small and insignificant city, regardless of the fact that the archaeologists we were working with indicated their belief that it had covered a large area. I am grateful to those specialists, who were good enough to spend time answering my questions and describing their other excavations within the site. Although in the subsequent 5 – 6 years I found brief references to Eleutheropolis, or Beit Guvrin, it was not until 2008 when I was researching church mosaics in Jordan for my Honours dissertation that I saw some confirmation of the importance of the area. Many of the most elaborate mosaics featured borders depicting (and naming) the important cities of the surrounding regions. Although these mosaics were in Arabia and showed few cities west of the Jordan they invariably included Eleutheropolis. Since these mosaics were created in the 6th and 7th c. CE I had to assume that either something about the city meant that it was well remembered or that it had indeed been an important city until that later period. Whichever it was I was strongly motivated to look for an answer; so that is where this journey really began. Many times during my journey I have wondered if this present point would ever be reached. That it has is due in large part to the inspiration and support I have received from some very special people, to whom I will be forever grateful. Firstly I must thank my supervisor, Professor David Kennedy. During the 2004 Tour of Roman Britain, which he led, I learned about the ancient history course at UWA and this was therefore in part responsible for my return to university studies at such an advanced age the following 9 year. His knowledge, guidance and counselling, particularly during my Postgraduate years, have kept me working, even when I had all-but convinced myself that I should stop. I thank him so much for all he has done. My grateful thanks go to Dr Glenys Wootton.