A PARASITOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE CASCADE RED FOX (VULPES VULPES CASCADENSIS) AND THE COYOTE (CANIS LATRANS) IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK by Jessica Brown A Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Environmental Studies The Evergreen State College June 2018 ©2018 by Jessica Brown. All rights reserved. This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree by Jessica Brown has been approved for The Evergreen State College by ________________________ Tara Chestnut, PhD Member of the Faculty ________________________ Date ABSTRACT A parasitological survey of the Cascade red fox (Vulpes vulpes cascadensis) and the coyote (Canis latrans) in Mount Rainier National Park. Jessica Brown Loss of biodiversity is widespread and increasing numbers of carnivores in North America are suffering from population decline and reduced distribution. The risk of extinction is reality for many of these species, predominately due to the consequences of human activities. The complexity of biodiversity loss has been linked to environmental alterations such as habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, urbanization, and climate change. In addition, disease emergence among wildlife, including parasitism, is accelerating at an alarming rate. Parasites and pathogens often interact with other environmental stressors and cause species population decline. Species with small populations and low genetic diversity are at the greatest risk of extirpation. Thus the aim of this study was to identify parasitic helminths of the Cascade red fox (Vulpus vulpes cascadensis) and the sympatric coyote (Canis latrans) in the Mount Rainier National Park (MORA) of Washington State. Cascade red fox, an extremely rare mesocarnivore, has experienced a decline in population and a recent loss of genetic diversity. In order to understand the potential negative impact of parasitism in Cascade red fox, I begin by describing some common canine helminths. Further, I address the impact that multiple stressors play on immune function, the effect of climate change on parasitism, and the dynamics of coinfecting parasites. Additionally, I describe the impact of inbreeding in small wildlife populations and their consequent susceptibility to disease. To further understand the threats to Cascade red fox and to help identify mitigation strategies, it is necessary to also include parasite monitoring. For this study, helminths were identified and quantified through the use of fecal flotations on scats collected from trails in MORA. The knowledge gained from this research will provide a baseline to enhance future conservation efforts of Cascade red fox. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 THE RED FOX ................................................................................................................... 2 CASCADE RED FOX ........................................................................................................... 4 PARASITES ....................................................................................................................... 7 HELMINTHS ...................................................................................................................... 8 Nematodes .................................................................................................................. 10 Ascarids................................................................................................................. 10 Toxacara canis ............................................................................................ 11 Toxascaris leonina....................................................................................... 14 Hookworms ........................................................................................................... 15 Whipworms ........................................................................................................... 18 Cestodes ..................................................................................................................... 19 Echinoccocus multilocaris........................................................................................ 20 Trematodes ................................................................................................................. 21 MULTIPLE STRESSORS ON IMMUNE FUNCTION ............................................................... 22 CLIMATE CHANGE AND PARASITISM .............................................................................. 24 COINFECTION DYNAMICS ............................................................................................... 27 INBREEDING DEPRESSION AND DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY ............................................... 30 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 32 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 33 FIGURES.......................................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 2: PARASITOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE CASCADE RED FOX AND THE COYOTE IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK ................................. 52 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 53 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 54 METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 56 Study area ................................................................................................................... 56 Sample collection ....................................................................................................... 57 Laboratory analyses ................................................................................................... 58 Data analyses ............................................................................................................. 59 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 60 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 60 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 64 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 66 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 67 TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 72 FIGURES.......................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER 3: SUMMARY/CONCLUSION ................................................................ 86 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 90 iv LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1.1. FEMALE CASCADE RED FOX IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK ............. 45 FIGURE 1.2. MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK .............................................................. 45 FIGURE 1.3. MAP: WASHINGTON STATE AND CASCADE RANGE ..................................... 46 FIGURE 1.4. DIRECT AND INDIRECT NEMATODE LIFE CYCLE ........................................... 47 FIGURE 1.5. TOXOCARA CANIS EGG .................................................................................. 47 FIGURE 1.6. TOXOCARA CANIS LIFE CYCLE ....................................................................... 48 FIGURE 1.7. TOXASCARIS LEONINA EGG ............................................................................ 49 FIGURE 1.8. EMBRYONATED TOXASCARIS LEONINA EGGS................................................. 49 FIGURE 1.9. ANCYLOSTOMA CANINUM LIFE CYCLE ........................................................... 50 FIGURE 1.10. ANCYLOSTOMA CANINUM AND TRICHURIS VULPIS EGGS ............................... 51 FIGURE 1.11. DIPLYDIUM CANINUM EGGS ........................................................................ 51 FIGURE 2.1. MAP: WASHINGTON STATE AND MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK .......... 73 FIGURE 2.2. MOUNT RAINIER TRAILS SURVEYED 2016 .................................................. 74 FIGURE 2.3. MOUNT RAINIER TRAILS SURVEYED 2017 .................................................. 75 FIGURE 2.4. COYOTE SCAT AND GPS .............................................................................. 76 FIGURE 2.5. CASCADE RED FOX SCAT SAMPLES .............................................................. 76 FIGURE 2.6. FIRST STEP OF FECAL FLOTATION PROCESS .................................................. 77 FIGURE 2.7. FECAL FLOTATION TEST TUBES ................................................................... 77 FIGURE 2.8. MAP: LOCATIONS OF CASCADE RED FOX SCAT 2016 ................................... 78 FIGURE 2.9. MAP: LOCATIONS OF CASCADE RED FOX SCAT 2017 ................................... 79 FIGURE 2.10. MAP: LOCATIONS OF COYOTE SCAT 2017 .................................................. 80 FIGURE 2.11. MAP: