I THOUGHT I WAS APPLYING “I Thought Applying I Was a Care as Giver” : Combating Traffcking in Women for Labour Exploitation in Domestic Work “ AS A CARE GIVER ” Combating Traffcking in Women for Labour Exploitation in Domestic Work I THOUGHT I WAS APPLYING “ AS A CARE GIVER ” Combating Trafficking in Women for Labour Exploitation in Domestic Work COORDINATED BY University of Nicosia, EDEX PARTNER ORGANIZATIONS • Te Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (MIGS), Nicosia, Cyprus • SURT, Women’s Foundation, Barcelona, Spain • Women’s Issues Information Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania • Centre for Gender Studies, Panteion University, Athens, Greece Published in Cyprus 2015 by University of Nicosia Press 46 Makedonitissas Avenue PO Box 24005 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus © Copyright in this volume as a whole is vested in the University of Nicosia Press and the editor. © Copyright in individual chapters belongs to the respective authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the publisher. Acknowledgment is given to the University of Nicosia Press for providing editorial support for this publication and to Aileen O’Donoghue for copy-editing the manuscript. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Anna Agathanegelou, University of York, for her role in evaluating this project. FINANCIALLY SUPPORTED BY Te Prevention of and Fight against Crime (ISEC) programme of the European Commission. Te contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the University of Nicosia and the respective authors, and the Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained herein. © DESIGN, Redtank Ltd, London, UK PRINTED AND BOUND IN CYPRUS BY Kemanes Digital Printers Ltd., Nicosia, Cyprus ISBN 978-9963-711-33-8 CONTENTS 5 INTRODUCTION 9 METHODOLOGY 13 COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN FOR LABOUR EXPLOITATION IN DOMESTIC WORK 27 INVESTIGATING TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN FOR LABOUR EXPLOITATION IN DOMESTIC WORK: THE CASE OF CYPRUS 83 DOMESTIC WORK AND TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS IN GREECE: A CROSSROADS IN THE DARK? 115 DOMESTIC WORK AND TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS: LITHUANIA AS A COUNTRY OF ORIGIN 136 BLURRED BOUNDARIES, INVISIBLE VICTIMS: TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF TRAFFICKING OF HUMAN BEINGS FOR LABOUR EXPLOITATION IN DOMESTIC WORK IN SPAIN 5 A INTRODUCTION 6 “I THOUGHT I WAS APPLYING AS A CARE GIVER” In recent years the issues of gender and migration have received more attention from schol- ars, researchers and policymakers in diferent national contexts as well as at the EU level. Despite there being acknowledgment that gender matters, the experience of migrant do- mestic workers as possible victims of trafcking in human beings for labour exploitation has remained unexplored. Migrant domestic workers are lef out of most policy framework relating to immigrant integration, violence against migrants, trafcking in human beings (THB), or exploitation, and therefore they tend to be invisible at all levels. However, female migrant domestic workers are visible agents within the destination countries since current economies in Europe are also built around them. EU Mediterranean countries such as Spain, Greece and Cyprus have become destination countries for many female migrant domestic workers, while Lithuana is a country from which domestic workers originate. It is evident from previous research that many are vic- tims of exploitation. OSCE’s Guide on Gender-Sensitive Labour Migration Policies notes that more women are migrating and the demand for workers in female dominated sectors, such as domestic work, is ever-increasing. Research shows that domestic workers play a crucial role in society but at the same time, due to the isolated and unregulated setting of their work, they are especially vulnerable to abuse, violence and exploitation. Migrant domestic workers mostly live in their employer’s house and many, according to studies by the International Labour Organization, report physical, psychological, sexual abuse, and exploitative work conditions. Tey are ofen overworked, underpaid, have their personal documents confscated, are restricted in their freedom of movement, and have their pay withheld in order to pay of debts related to their recruitment and transportation. Such exploitation is under-reported, and authorities do not necessarily recognize these situa- tions to be cases of trafcking. However, trafcking in women may occur if the employee has been deceived, or if her dependent status and vulnerability has been abused in order to subject her to exploitation. Furthermore, the recent EU directive on THB (2011/36/EU) recognizes the gender dimension and it encourages Member States to be more aware of the less investigated forms of THB such as labour exploitation. Te new strategy on THB (Te EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafcking in Human Beings 2012–2016) is a critical tool in assisting the Member States to implement the Directive, and both documents pay special attention to THB for labour exploitation. A: INTRODUCTION 7 THE PROJECT Tis book is the result of a 24-month research project entitled Trafcking in Women for Labour Exploitation in Domestic Work. Tis project was funded by the Prevention of and Fight against Crime programme of the European Commission’s Directorate-General of Home Afairs and coordinated by the University of Nicosia in partnership with the Medi- terranean Institute of Gender Studies (MIGS), the Department of Social Policy, Centre for Gender Studies of Panteion University in Greece, SURT Women’s Foundation in Spain, and the Women’s Issues Information Centre in Lithuania. Our project addresses the issue of trafcking in women for the purpose of forced labour and labour exploitation with a particular focus on migrant domestic workers. Te question raised is whether the means of recruitment and exploitative work situations under which migrant domestic workers live and work include elements of trafcking. As mentioned above, the phenomenon of trafcking in women for the purpose of exploitation in domestic work is a relatively new research area at both the EU and international levels. While some research studies have been conducted on THB for the purpose of labour exploitation and have identifed some instances of trafcking in women for domestic work, there is still a considerable gap between the knowledge of and research on the scope of the problem and the measures required to tackle it. Consequently, policymakers have not yet been proactive, but the current research can hopefully guide them towards developing appropriate meas- ures and formulating policies to address this issue, specifcally at the EU level. To achieve the aims and objectives of the project the methodology used by researchers in all contexts followed a human rights, gender-sensitive approach with a focus on intersectional- ity both in designing and in conducting research. Te sampling procedure was common in all countries, given the limitations that the research questions posed. Te book compiles the results of the qualitative research implemented in the partners’ countries. Teir respective chapters each provide an overview of their country’s existing na- tional policy contexts on trafcking in human beings and migration which was the starting point of the research study. Tey map the current policies on trafcking in human beings and migration in relation to domestic workers and then explore how these are translated into practice. Interestingly, although one expects that most of the partner countries have a history on migration and would consider that gender equality is a basic principle in both theory and practice, we nevertheless see questions are still being raised about the extent to which goverments’ apparent commitment to gender, racial and ethnic equality is being 8 “I THOUGHT I WAS APPLYING AS A CARE GIVER” translated into practice. Furthermore and most importantly, each chapter focuses on female migrant domestic workers’ stories, bringing to the fore their voices and experiences. Te present book aims to contribute to our understanding of complex issues relating to traf- fcking in human beings, gender and migration and will be of use to those with particular interest in this feld in academia, civil society and policymaking. I would like to take this opportunity to warmly thank the project leaders of the University of Nicosia for the guid- ance and coordination of this project and all the partners for their knowledge, commitment and professionalism without which this publication would not have been possible. Special thanks are also extended to the external evaluator Professor Anna Agathangelou for her support and invaluable comments and suggestions throughout the project. Special thanks are also extended to Aileen O’Donoghue for her editorial support. Josie Christodoulou Policy Coordinator Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies 9 B METHODOLOGY 10 “I THOUGHT I WAS APPLYING AS A CARE GIVER” Te research within the framework of the project “Combatting Trafcking in Women for Labour Exploitation in Domestic Work” was conducted in four countries: Cyprus, Greece, Spain and Lithuania. Although each country has its own socio-historic background and faces diferent challenges, the methodology followed in all four participating countries was similar in order to have compatible and comparable fndings. If we want to proceed to a sort of typology regarding the four countries, we can distinguish three types. First, Cyprus can be considered a major destination country for domestic workers. Te guest-worker regime is unique in the EU as it is shaped by state authorities to determine every detail of the recruitment terms and the overall working arrangements and relations of the domestic worker with a particular employer/household. Within this specifc regime, possible links between supply and demand of domestic work in the Cypriot labour market and the push and pull factors of workers who fall victim to being trafcked for labour ex- ploitation had to be researched and highlighted. Secondly, Greece and Spain present similar characteristics with regard to the extent and nature of domestic work and trafcking in human beings.