Continuities and Discontinuities in Chinese Literary Criticism – From the Pre-Modern into the Modern Period Karl-Heinz Pohl, Trier The term literary criticism has a double meaning in English: literary theory and criticism of literature. Between the two, the line is not always clearly drawn as works of criticism can refer to actual works (reviews thereof) and, at the same time, attempt to expound fundamental insights into the essence of literature. This is also true in China where we have, additionally, the exacting circumstance that critical works often are works of literature in their own right, as poems, rhyme-prose or parallel-prose. In the long cultural history of China, a critical practice and theoretical concepts emerged that had a great impact on views of literature in general. Considering that Chinese modernity is not even one hundred years old (if we take the May Fourth Period of 1919 as its starting point), it can be safely assumed that some of these ideas are still valid today. The concept of modernity, however, is still a subject of great debate – from the question of what characterizes modernity, content wise, examining the notion of multiple (and thus also a Chinese) modernity, up to the distinction between modern and postmodern. Hence, I will use the term “modern” regarding China in a strictly chronological sense, that is, in contrast to “imperial China”, as the period after 1912. 1. The Pre-Modern Period 1.1. The Concept of Literature in Pre-Modern China The natural sciences and humanities possess a universalistic claim. As a rule, one tries to find theories and principles that are universally valid and do not give much space to exceptions. But, most of all, the sciences and humanities are a European invention. And thus there is an inclination to define concepts and categories on the basis of specifically European tradition, according to European (also American) preferences. But Western style modernity is only the continuation of a long local cultural tradition, and literary studies are only one part of this Eurocentric academic endeavour. For example, a modern concept of literature, prevalent in Europe/America, regards Homer’s epics and Greek tragedies as the beginning of literature which culminates in the modern novel and drama; hence, it emphasises fictionality as the quintessence of literature. The belles-lettres is likewise a European invention that occurred rather late (18th century). Looking at literature from an earlier understanding, it is, first of all, “written word” (Latin: letterae – the letters); and thus the pre-modern understanding of literature tended to be less “fine writing”, as in belles-lettres, but leaned much more towards scholarship. That is, the object of literary studies was a thorough acquaintance with the whole written tradition. 2 Seen from this perspective, there would be a parallel to Chinese literature: Although we don’t find a predilection for epos and drama – instead it was poetry that figured prominently as the top literary genre – we have in China with the important notion of wen 文(writing) an equivalent to the pre-modern European concept of literature. In the modern colloquial combinations of wenxue 文學 (literally: study of writing) or wenzhang 文章 (literary article), the character wen refers to literature in a comprehensive sense. Etymologically speaking, wen means a pattern of crossed lines. In the classical Zhou period (11th – 3rd cent. BC), this led to the meaning of wen as literary pattern and rhetorical embellishment – i.e. a beautiful exterior in contrast to substance or inner qualities (zhi 質). Later on, wen would acquire the meaning of formally crafted literature (prose as well as poetry and other literary forms with rhyme or in parallel prose) – in contrast to prose used solely for official purposes which was called bi 筆 (brush). Another important dimension of meaning in the character wen is a civil and cultural one (as in the modern word wenhua 文化– culture, as opposed to wu 武– martial). Hence, the character wen entails an aesthetic as well as a cultivating, educational aspect. Wen came into usage as the meaning of “literature” only in the Han Dynasty, then referring to the classics, as well as to the writing of history that began in this period. In terms of literature, in the sense of consciously formed writing, the most important medium or genre was the shi- poem 詩 as it was transmitted from the 11th to the 6th century BC in the important classic Book of Songs (shi jing 诗经). Early reflection on literary ideas and value was almost exclusively concerned with this kind of poetry, such as in the influential “Great Preface” to the Book of Songs. The poems collected in this classic already possessed the typical features of later day Chinese poetry such as brevity, conciseness, and a highly allusive and suggestive diction using nature metaphors. It would become the primary medium of expression for the Chinese literati, and with its greatest protagonists such as Li Bai 李白; and Du Fu 杜甫 (in the 8th cent.) it became – as the greatest literary contribution of China – part of world literature. Chronologically speaking, after the emergence of the shi-poetry (which was very much a northern genre), we encounter in and around the ancient state of Chu 楚 in the 4th-3rd century BC a peculiarly southern kind of poetry, the so-called “Songs of Chu” (Chuci 楚辭). The Songs of Chu mark a transition in the history of Chinese literature, as for the first time we find here, particularly in the longest and most important of these songs, the Lisao 離騷 (Encountering Sorrow), a person as a poet – Qu Yuan 屈原 (ca. 340 BC - 278 BC) – whom, because of his fate as a loyal but critical minister, literati of later generations liked to identify with. After this, we have in the Han period the rhapsodies or rhyme-prose (fu 賦), which have a lot in common with the Chuci, as well as the yuefu 樂府 folksongs (or ballads). Only much later, in the Song Dynasty (10th-13th cent.), a new form of poetry (ci-songs 詞) was added to the canon. Vernacular literature (novels and plays) also emerged in this period, but never gained the same acceptance among the literati as poetry did. Representative for the pre-modern understanding of wen as literature is the beginning of Liu Xie’s 劉 勰(465-522 AD) monumental The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍), the most thorough treatise on all aspects of literature from the 6th cent. AD, with the title “On the Origin: the Dao” (Yuan dao 原道). Here, the character wen is given a most comprehensive significance – as pattern, form, culture, civilization as well as literature. First of all, Liu Xie alludes to the cosmological dimension of wen: understood in its basic meaning as “pattern”, wen is the pattern of the universe, such as the heavenly bodies and features (sun, moon, stars, clouds etc.) as well as the formations on earth 3 (mountains, rivers, plants, flowers); hence he calls these formations “pattern of the Dao” (dao zhi wen 道之文). Liu Xie emphasizes the natural organization of these patterns: The sculptured colors of clouds surpass paintings in their beauty, and the blossoms of plants depend on no embroiderers for their marvellous grace. Can these features be due to external adornment? No, they are all natural (ziran 自然).1 Juxtaposed to this natural pattern of the universe is the human mind (xin 心) which is revealed in wen as writing/literature, for “with the emergence of mind, language is created, and when language is created, writing appears.”2 And he asks: Now if things which are devoid of consciousness express themselves so extremely decoratively, can that which is endowed with mind lack a pattern proper to itself?3 Therefore he concludes, “words with pattern (yan zhi wen 言之文) [i.e. literature] indeed express the mind of the universe (tian di zhi xin 天地之心).”4 Lastly, Liu Xie discerns in wen an additional meaning as the cultivating teachings of the sages of old, particularly of Confucius. Because of their cultural achievements “we know that Dao is handed down in writing through sages, and that sages make Dao manifest in their writing.”5 Thus we have here a grand analogy which encompasses human beings, the sages and the entire universe; at the same time, it is an apotheosis of wen as the highest structuring principle of the cosmos and of man. Literature, or better wen in all its multifaceted meanings, is for Liu Xiu nothing less than the formation of a cosmic principle of order and structure that manifests itself in the Confucian classics. Hence he writes at the beginning of this first chapter: “Wen, or pattern, is a great virtue indeed. It is born together with heaven and earth.”6 Much later, the Confucian context of wen was further strengthened through Neo-Confucian thought, beginning in the 10th century. Zhou Dunyi (周敦頤, 1017-1073 AD), one of the earliest Neo-Confucian masters, expressed the idea that “literature is supposed to carry the [Confucian moral] ‘Way’” (wen yi zai dao 文以載道). This didactical concept of literature, as part of the Confucian orthodoxy, became most influential for the last millennium of imperial China. 1.2. Criticism in Pre-Modern Times What were criticism and literary theory like in pre-modern times? First of all, early criticism focused on questions of forms or classification of writing. We find a formative discussion of genres in the period between Han and Tang, culminating in Liu Xie’s The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. But this is only one aspect of early criticism.