Brexit: what now? Uncoupling UK law from the EU Much UK law is currently linked to that of the EU. Ending the UK’s membership of the EU will require significant uncoupling of the two legal systems. This paper provides an introduction to the inter-relationship of UK law and EU law and the legal mechanisms that might be used to separate them. As the issues surrounding implementation are highly complex, this introductory paper tries to provide a clear outline that can act as the foundation for more detailed analysis. The “ECA”: The European Communities Act 1972 – UK Membership – legal status the key UK statute implementing the UK’s UK law has historically taken the view that an membership of the EU. international treaty (or non-UK law ratified by the UK Government) does not form part of the domestic laws of the UK unless and until it is given effect by, or pursuant to, an Act of the UK Parliament. In limited circumstances, the UK Government can give effect to treaty obligations without specific legislation. The EU law perspective is that the obligations of EU law apply Categories of EU Law throughout the EU as an automatic consequence of EU law can be defined in the following membership of the EU. This means that EU law will, on principal categories: its own terms, no longer apply in the UK immediately after the UK stops being an EU Member State. As a – EU Treaties: The primary law of the EU. Binding result, the UK’s membership of the EU operates on on the UK as an EU Member State. The EU Treaties three levels: also contain important provisions that create rights and obligations for private persons throughout the – International level: For so long as the UK is part EU, and which are directly enforceable in the UK for of the EU, the UK’s compliance with the EU Treaties so long as it is part of the EU; is governed by EU law. After the UK has left, it may still have obligations arising from international law. – EU Regulations: EU Regulations are binding As a general principle, international law regulates and directly applicable and so do not require relationships between states rather than the rights transposition by the UK into domestic law to be and obligations of citizens or business although directly enforceable in the UK courts; there are significant exceptions, such as the EEA – EU Directives: Directives are binding upon Agreement and fundamental rights provisions; Member States as to the result to be achieved but, – EU level: As a result of EU membership, the with limited exceptions, are not directly applicable relationship of an EU Member State with the or enforceable in domestic law without Member institutions of the EU, and the Member State’s States taking steps to transpose them. Directives compliance with its obligations under the EU are generally transposed into UK law by domestic Treaties1, is regulated by EU law, as distinct from primary or secondary legislation; and international and domestic law; and – Decisions of the institutions of the EU: Some – Domestic level: In UK law, the ECA provides the decisions of EU institutions are binding on the UK law basis for the relationship between EU and parties to whom they address, and tend to address UK law and gives EU law precedence over UK law. matters specific to those parties and so can be relied To implement Brexit the UK will need to amend on in the UK courts. or repeal the ECA and other legislation. 1 The Treaty on the European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), referred to together as the “EU Treaties”. Implementation of EU Law in the UK How might the UK implement Brexit in UK law? The different categories of EU law described in this The only formal process for the UK to leave the EU is that paper are implemented in UK law in different ways: set out in Article 50 of the EU Treaty. This provides that, on exit, the EU Treaties will “cease to apply” to the UK. – Under EU law, some elements (including EU Whilst it is possible the UK’s exit could be executed by Regulations and certain provisions of the EU agreement (i.e. without triggering Article 50), we assume Treaties) are directly applicable, or have direct effect, for the purposes of this paper that in any event the EU in Member State domestic law. Section 2(1) ECA Treaties will no longer apply to the UK on Brexit. incorporates this category of EU law into UK law so that it takes effect in UK domestic law automatically Applying this assumption and by way of illustration, we without the need for further UK legislation. This outline in this paper three theoretical approaches (plus mechanism provides a “short cut” to implement a a variation of Option 2) that could apply to UK law on wide range of EU legislation into UK law; exit. These models are useful in understanding the key issues but, in practice, as we describe at the end of this – Section 2(2) ECA provides a mechanism to give paper, the actual process of withdrawal is likely to be far UK legal effect to EU law provisions that are not more complex. directly applicable and do not have direct effect. It gives power to the UK Government2 to make secondary legislation, such as statutory instruments, to implement any EU law obligation, without the need for further primary legislation. A large number of EU law provisions are currently incorporated into UK law through secondary legislation under this section. This secondary legislation can even amend primary legislation (section 2(4) ECA); – Some other EU law measures which do not have direct effect are incorporated into the UK by other specific primary or secondary legislation. In some cases, this goes further than the relevant EU law and/or predates the EU law; and – Section 3(1) ECA requires UK national courts to construe all primary legislation in line with EU law, as interpreted by the Court of Justice of the European Union (“CJEU”), and disapply any legislation that is inconsistent3. The effect is that Key points rulings of the CJEU on the correct interpretation of Principal ways in which UK law incorporates EU law: EU law are binding in the UK. – Directly applicable or effective provisions of EU law are automatically recognized and As EU law takes effect in different ways, a variety of enforceable in UK law under section 2(1) ECA; approaches would be needed to give effect to Brexit. – Provisions of EU law that are not directly applicable or effective are transposed into UK law by domestic primary or secondary implementing legislation. Much of this is done through secondary legislation enacted under section 2(2) ECA; and – EU Court decisions on the interpretation of EU law are binding in the UK. In some areas, the current UK regulatory regime relies entirely on directly applicable EU law provisions. In other areas, the UK regime may incorporate EU law as part of the domestic framework. Sometimes UK 2 As result of devolution, the Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish devolved administrations have concurrent responsibility to comply with, transpose law goes further than the minimum standards and implement the UK’s obligations to implement EU law which relates to required under EU law. devolved matters. 3 Where the correct interpretation of a provision of EU law is disputed, the national courts can refer the question to the CJEU under the Article 267 TFEU. Option 1: Brexit with no domestic UK legal In addition, although the provisions of indirectly implementation effective EU law (primarily EU Directives) would continue to apply through UK implementing In this scenario: legislation, they would arguably be “frozen” in that – At the point at which the UK stops being a member form and would not track any changes to the underlying of the EU no changes would be made to UK domestic EU law unless and until amended to that effect by the legislation; and UK Parliament. – The ECA would remain in force in its current form, In some areas, for example the telecommunications as would all other primary and secondary legislation sector, UK regulation is constituted by a combination giving effect to EU law. of directly applicable EU Regulations and domestic law which “fills in the gaps”. This scenario would be It is relevant in this context that the implementation particularly unsatisfactory for the affected areas as of specific legislation to repeal implementation of EU parts of the regime would remain whilst others would law would, in most cases, require an active decision of no longer apply. the UK Parliament. This is a matter that is subject to some political uncertainty so, to the extent there were Option 2: Remove EU-influenced law from UK law no such active decision, there would be no domestic In this scenario the UK Parliament would pass UK legal implementation of Brexit. legislation to repeal the ECA in its entirety and without Section 2(1) ECA operates by giving force in UK law replacement. to any “enforceable EU right” within the meaning of In a variant to this option, (Option 2A in the table of that section. When the UK stops being an EU Member options), Parliament could go even further and legislate State directly applicable EU law rights will no longer to repeal all UK primary and secondary legislation be “enforceable EU rights” for this purpose. As a result, which implements EU law in the UK, with effect from EU Regulations and directly applicable EU Treaty the date on which the UK leaves the EU.