“Through a glasse darkly”: Secrecy and Access to Arcane Knowledge in Seventeenth-Century England by Christa Hunfeld B.A. (Honours), Dalhousie University, 2008 M.A., University of Victoria, 2010 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of History © Christa Hunfeld, 2018 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee “Through a glasse darkly”: Secrecy and Access to Arcane Knowledge in Seventeenth-Century England by Christa Hunfeld B.A. (Honours), Dalhousie University, 2008 M.A., University of Victoria, 2010 Supervisory Committee Dr. Andrea McKenzie, Supervisor Department of History Dr. Simon Devereaux, Departmental Member Department of History Dr. Erin Campbell, Outside Member Department of Art History and Visual Studies iii Abstract In seventeenth-century England, pursuits of knowledge were shaped by two seemingly paradoxical, yet interwoven beliefs: a persistent belief in the devastating effects of the Fall on human reason, and a growing trust in human ability to sharpen understanding and pierce the seemingly impenetrable. This dissertation explores how writers of works of physiognomy, shorthand, astrology and secret history simultaneously presented human conjecture and intuition as limited and flawed but also capable of providing ordinary people with access to privileged information. The authors of these “do-it-yourself” manuals made distinctions between God’s secrecy and human secrecy and provided tips on how each could be tapped. Physiognomy inspired constant searching for hidden sources of insight; shorthand encouraged the sense that there was often more than met the eye; astrology emphasized the usefulness of uncertainty. Secret histories suggested that the very skills which the practices of physiognomy, shorthand, and astrology honed could be used to unveil the secrets of carnal monarchs, ministers, and royal mistresses. Over the course of the seventeenth century, the limits of attainable knowledge – and who could reliably present and access it – were being defined and redefined. To leading philosophers and political figures, human uncertainty necessitated the weighing of probabilities and the idealization of transparent, empirical and elite approaches to information. I argue that to writers of physiognomy, shorthand, astrology, and secret history, it reinforced the notion that arcane knowledge could be accessed by anyone. Such writers variously suggested that information that mattered to people’s daily lives depended upon personalized, conjectural and intuitive approaches to knowing. In short, secrets that were once divine and impenetrable were actually up for grabs. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee.................................................................................................. ii Abstract........................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents............................................................................................................ iv List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments........................................................................................................... vi Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: “A Character of Sin”: Physiognomy and the Nature of Fallen Bodies......... 43 Chapter 2: “Adam in his Innocency”: Shorthand and the Secrets of Salvation.............. 92 Chapter 3: “Much Knowledge is Necessary”: Astrology and the Secrets of the Stars... 140 Chapter 4: “Shrew’d Conjectures”: Secret Histories and Subversive Ways of Knowing 192 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 243 Bibliography................................................................................................................... 258 v List of Abbreviations Bodleian Oxford, Bodleian Library BL London, British Library DWL London, Dr. Williams Library TNA, SP The National Archives, State Papers Wellcome London, Wellcome Library WRO Wigan, Wigan Record Office All folio and signature references are to the recto unless otherwise noted. Brackets indicate page numbers that have been inferred, due to inconsistent foliation or the absence of a signature. Published primary sources have predominantly been accessed through Early English Books Online and Eighteenth-Century Collections Online. Only short titles have been noted. For longer titles, please consult the bibliography of this study. For complete titles, consult the databases mentioned above. The place of publication is London, unless otherwise noted. vi Acknowledgments The completion of this dissertation is due to the generous support and guidance of many people. First and foremost among these is my MA and PhD supervisor, Dr. Andrea McKenzie. Over the last ten years I have come to depend on her perceptiveness, patience, humour and intellectual rigour. Andrea has been a constant source of strength during my most challenging personal and professional moments and I am very grateful for the various ways in which she has forever impacted my life and patterns of thought. I am also fortunate in my committee members: Dr. Simon Devereaux, Dr. Erin Campbell and Dr. Lori Anne Ferrell. Their invaluable advice and insightful suggestions have challenged me to think and write more clearly. I would like to extend a particular thank you to Simon who, after my first big conference presentation, mentioned that it was just like rolling off a log – a saying which subsequently became (and remains) my mantra when faced with particularly anxious or trying times. This whole experience would never have begun if not for the inspiration and encouragement provided by Dr. Krista Kesselring during my undergrad years at Dalhousie University. Dr. Hélѐne Cazes has also provided numerous opportunities to develop and present my ideas. In addition, between September 2009 and August 2010 I was fortunate to hold a graduate fellowship at UVic’s Centre for Studies in Religion and Society. This provided financial support, an exciting intellectual environment and, in particular, the gracious, consistent and very valued support of the centre’s director, Dr. Paul Bramadat. I would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, British Columbia’s Pacific Century vii Graduate Scholarship and the University of Victoria’s Department of History. The Canada Graduate Scholarships – Michael Smith Foreign Study Supplement afforded me the opportunity to spend three months at various archives throughout England – an experience which, among other things, taught me much about the important assistance provided by archival staff. I am also thankful for the kindness and enthusiasm provided by Dr. Brodie Waddell during my time there. Graduate school will always be remembered as one of the best decisions I ever made because it brought me to the University of Victoria. I have enjoyed being a member of UVic’s Department of History. The wonderful staff and faculty there have enriched my journey. Most of all, however, I am so very glad to have made deep and lifelong friendships with fellow grad students Lisa Pasolli, Margaret Robbins and Megan Harvey. These incredibly intelligent and courageous women have encouraged and nurtured my confidence and, with a lot of laughter, have always helped me keep things in perspective. I am very grateful for my family. Papa, Mama, my brother and sisters and their spouses and all my nieces and nephews have been unfailingly empathetic and encouraging, even when I was at my snappiest. Their company, food, care for Juniper and myriad acts of assistance and support have sustained me. My fellow grad student and incredibly supportive and understanding husband Derek Murray is a constant source of quiet strength, patience and dependability, as well as an ultimate example of dedication. Thank you for the life we have created together, thank you for our amazing girl, Juniper, and thank you for the future that lies ahead. Introduction In the seventeenth century knowledge did not need to be entirely transparent, certain or wholly accessible in order to be a valuable diagnostic and prognostic tool.1 In Spiritual Opticks (1651), for instance, theologian Nathaniel Culverwell wrote that, although religion is shrouded in mystery, it “is no fansie, opinion or conjecturall thing: no, we have a certain knowledge of God and his wayes here; we see through a glasse, though it be but darkly: there is truth in a riddle, though it be obscure.”2 The fact that valuable knowledge was often secret and uncertain made it attractive to those who believed they could obtain privileged access to information not readily available to others. Physiognomers, shorthand masters, astrologers and writers of secret histories provided such access. They suggested that the most secret things should also be the most sought after and that they knew of the most accessible means by which to obtain such knowledge. At a time when transparency (or, at least, pretensions to it) was increasingly presented as the goal for makers and purveyors