Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen, Huong Thu Nguyen, Huy Van Nguyen, Trang Thi Thuy Nguyen 12 Local challenges to global needs in English language education in Vietnam: The perspective of language policy and planning English education reforms have been implemented across Asia in response to globalisation and the increasing spread of English as an international language. This has created both opportunities and challenges for local systems of English language education in non-English speaking countries. This chapter critically examines the role of English education in Vietnam in view of the broad context of the globalisation of English. It starts with a discussion on how globalisation has impacted English language education in general and in Vietnam in particular. It includes a review on the current reforms in English education policy, which is followed by a discussion of three empirical case study findings on the English education policy implementation in Vietnam. The chapter concludes by highlighting the possible implications for policymakers and language educators in Vietnam. All across Asia, English seems to have become more important than ever before due to its increasingly prominent role in globalisation. Globalisation and the spread of English have undeniably resulted in English being recognised as a valuable resource for national development and regional integration. The link between English and globalisation is believed to be the driving force behind reforms in English education policies in most Asian polities (Qi, 2009; Tollefson & Tsui, 2004). As a result, most governments in Asia, including Vietnam, have recently initiated reforms in English language education to improve the language proficiency of the learners (Hamid, 2010; Johnstone, 2010). English has been introduced as a compulsory subject at an increasingly younger age. For example, in China and Korea, English is taught at Grade 3, while in Indonesia it starts at Grade 4, or in Taiwan at Grade 1. As English has been increasingly used as medium of instruction, this has resulted in the transformation of many local English education systems in Asia. For instance, this demand for English offers opportunities to the Teaching English to Speaker of Other Languages (TESOL) profession but at the same time it creates tremendous challenges for the local education system. For most of the countries in Asia, English education innovations have encountered a number of issues, including teacher quality and quantity, teaching and learning resources, and equality of learning outcomes (see Lamb & Coleman, 2008; Kosonen, Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen, The University of New South Wales, Australia Huong Thu Nguyen, Huy Van Nguyen, Trang Thi Thuy Nguyen, The University of Queensland, Australia Globalisation and global English education 215 2013). For example, the introduction of English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) initiative in higher education in Malaysia has encountered inefficient implementation, and less desirable learning outcomes (Ali, 2013; Gill, 2012; Lee, 2014). In a similar vein, the issue of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) quality teaching and learning environment is a major concern in the context of Indonesia (Dardjowidjojo, 2000; Kirkpatrick, 2007). In many of the countries in Asia, the introduction of English language policy initiatives has triggered issues of ineffective implementation at the local level. In view of this, there is the need to investigate the tension between policy formulation at the macro level and policy operation at the local level in developing countries such as Vietnam. 12.1 Globalisation and global English education English has been strongly associated with globalisation since it is the de facto working language in this modern world. Together with Information Technology (IT), English constitutes what is called “global literacy skills” (Tollefson & Tsui, 2007: 1), which redefines labour efficiency in the globalised world. Lo Bianco asserts that the education of English as a foreign language is “profoundly” influenced by globalisation and that the spread of English is attributed to the fact the English is “well-endowed” with “Q value” (Lo Bianco, 2014: 317), a term he borrowed from de Swaan (1993), to refer to the “communication payoff” considering the time and effort one has to spend on learning the language. Majhanovich even considers English as a “tool of neo-liberalism and globalization in Asian contexts” (Majhanovich, 2013: 249). She argues that the spread of English today helps to promote neoliberal ideals inherent in the globalisation process. Neo-liberialism is associated with the ideologies of choice, competition, and the free market (Price, 2014). Therefore, critics have pointed out that the spread of English entails potential danger of “exacerbating or even creating socioeconomic and educational inequalities” (Price, 2014: 569) between individuals, social groups, as well as between developed countries and the less developed or developing ones. Many non-English speakers in Asia are encouraged to attain the ideal English language proficiency that is comparable to the English-speaking world regardless of their local contexts and traditions. For example, Asian universities are keen to adopt English as the main medium of instruction and establish high-stake language testing as an entry and exit gatekeeper. Consequently, English language education in many Asian countries is constructed based on Eurocentric knowledge, evaluation systems, textbooks, and resources. This also reflects an important neoliberal ideology perpetuated by the English-speaking world in education, and that is the shift from “pedagogical to market values [and] the abandonment of the social and cooperative ethic in favour of individualist and competitive business models” (Block, Gray & Holborow, 2013: 6). 216 Local challenges to global needs in English language education in Vietnam ... Empirical research evidence has converged on the challenges and adverse impact of globalisation and neo-liberal agenda on language education in many Asian contexts. For example, Lamb and Coleman (2008) warn that the spread of English in the long run might deepen the “inequalities in the distribution of cultural, social, and economic capital” among young Indonesian learners of English (Lamb & Coleman, 2008: 189). In line with this opinion, Price (2014) has looked at English language education policies in Taiwan from 2000 to 2008 and argued that the neoliberal mantra of choice and competition reflected in English-for-all policies did not guarantee opportunities for learners. On the contrary, she posits that “regions, schools, and individuals are forced to compete with each other on anything but a level playing field given uneven resource allocation in the public education sector between rural and urban areas” (Price, 2014: 586). In her review of current studies in English language education in Asia, Majhanovich (2014) criticises the recent embracement of EMI in some Asian countries including those who were never British colonies like Vietnam. Siding with Kosonen (2013) and Brock-Utne (2013), she advocates for the role of local Asian languages as media of instruction rather than that of English language. She stresses that, … more micro-level studies, and policy-practice studies, are desirable to highlight the inequities, the contradictions, and the complexities of how language and education play out in a local or national landscape pervaded by global influences and neo-liberal economic policies. (Majhano- vich, 2014: 179) 12.2 Current English language policy and planning in Vietnam The constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam stipulates that Vietnamese is the lingua franca of the country (National Assembly, 2013). With 54 ethnic minorities in its territory, Vietnam boasts diverse language ecology. To maintain such linguistic richness, the government tries to support the language capacity of minority people. For example, even though it is stated in the Education Law that Vietnamese is the language of education for all people, it also enshrines that, The State shall enable ethnic minority people to learn their spoken and written languages in order to preserve and develop their ethnic cultural identity, helping pupils from ethnic mino- rities easily absorb knowledge when they study in schools and other educational institutions. (National Assembly, 2005) The major historical developments of the country have also contributed to the country’s language environment. Chinese, French, Russian and English have come to Vietnam through warfare, colonial domination, foreign support, economic development and global integration (Lo Bianco, 2001; Wright, 2002). These political, economic and social influences have impacted the government’s policies regarding Current English language policy and planning in Vietnam 217 the teaching of foreign languages as well as people’s attitudes in learning foreign languages (Pham, 2014). At present, like other Asian countries, English is the most popular foreign language in Vietnam for communication, education, trade, science and technology (Goh & Nguyen, 2004). Facing the need to ensure economic growth for the country, the Vietnamese government places special importance on the role of foreign languages especially English education in the national economic development and global integration (General Secretary, 2013). In view of the importance of English education in Vietnam, the government has recently approved the project “Teaching and learning foreign languages in the national education