Journal of Physical Science and Application 11 (1) (2021) 1-11 doi: 10.17265/2159-5348/2021.01.001 D DAVID PUBLISHING Formation and Evolution of Stars Cuixiang Zhong Department of Physics, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, China Abstract: The evolution of stars is one of the most important problems in astrophysics. However, the existing theories of stellar evolution fail to reveal the real mechanism of star formation, and thus fail to correctly reveal the mechanisms and laws of star growth, aging, death and resurrection. Therefore, by studying the formation process of satellites, planets and stars, the author can reveal the mechanisms and laws of star formation and evolution: as the star spins rapidly and its planets go round and round, a series of cyclones can form all over the star. These cyclones not only ignite thermonuclear reactions in the star, but also continuously absorb hydrogen and other interstellar material in space to maintain thermonuclear reactions in the star. But, with the increase of star mass, if the magnetic attraction of the stellar cyclone grows large enough that the star engulfs the innermost planet scattering cyclones through the magnetic attraction of the cyclone, the stellar mass will increase significantly, the stellar atmosphere will thicken significantly, the internal temperature of the star will increase greatly, and the huge energy will be released, causing the star to suddenly expand and become a red giant. When the red giant burns the swallowed planet, its internal temperature will gradually decrease, and the helium fusion will stop. At this time, the central gravity of the star cannot be balanced by the radiation pressure generated by the hydrogen or helium fusion, and the inner star will contract. Until the central gravity of the star is balanced by the degenerate pressure of the electrons in the center of the star, the contraction will stop, forming a white dwarf or black dwarf. When a star evolves into a white dwarf or a black dwarf, its mass increases significantly and its atmosphere thickens significantly, but its volume shrinks greatly and its rotation speed speeds up greatly, so its polar cyclones strengthen greatly. During the rapid rotation of white or black dwarfs, their polar cyclones can absorb a large amount of cloud gas from the dense atmosphere and compress the cloud gas into huge metal hydrogen crystals. When such a huge metal hydrogen crystal hits the surface of a star violently, it will cause a violent explosion, re-ignite the thermonuclear reaction on the star, and shine a very bright light, making the very dark or invisible star suddenly become an extremely bright supernova. This high brightness of supernovae can last for several weeks and years, until it consumes most of the atmosphere accumulated by the star, and then gradually decays into invisibility. It is not the funeral of a star that a supernova changes from bright to dark. When the atmosphere of a star is thick enough again, a supernova explosion may occur, but it will take a long time. Therefore, there will be countless supernova explosions in the process of stellar evolution. When the mass of a white dwarf exceeds 1.4 times the mass of the sun, it evolves into a neutron star. When the mass of a neutron star exceeds three times the mass of the sun, a black hole is formed. Keywords: Main sequence star, red giant, white dwarf, supernova, neutron star, black hole. 1. Introduction began to fuse, from near to far, a series of thermonuclear reactions were carried out, finally the Among so many hypotheses about the formation sun became a star that emits light and heat; once the and evolution of stars, the most influential one is the hydrogen in the core is exhausted, the life of the star nebular hypothesis, which holds that the sun formed will end. But according to the law of universal from a collapsed nebula 4.57 billion years ago [1, 2]; a gravitation, nebulae are formed by the gravitational rotating nebula underwent gravitational collapse, force of stars or planets, without the attraction of when the core temperature of the nebula rose to 10 massive stars or planets, hydrogen molecules would million K, the thermonuclear reaction of hydrogen run away. Hence, the hypothesis that stars are formed fusion into helium was ignited, releasing a great deal from pure nebulae is not tenable. Additionally, of energy, causing the ambient temperature and according to scientific estimates, the thermonuclear pressure to rise, thus the surrounding hydrogen also reaction of the sun has lasted for about 4.57 billion Corresponding author: Cuixiang Zhong, Doctor, research years, and it will last more than 5 billion years, the field: astronomy and computer applications. 2 Formation and Evolution of Stars limited hydrogen element obviously could not satisfy evolved from a satellite of small size and mass into an such a long-term thermonuclear reaction, in order to earth-sized planet, it generated some satellites, but it sustain long-term thermonuclear reactions, a steady still revolved around its parent star, unceasingly stream of fuel must be obtained from space. So the accreted the nebula materials near the orbits to existing hypothesis of solar formation has serious become larger and larger, and gradually moved defects. Thus by studying the formation and evolution away from its parent star with the frequent collisions of satellites, planets and stars, the author has of prograde planetesimals or the accelerating rotation discovered the law of star formation and evolution. of its parent star due to contraction [5-7]. Afterwards it met a series of impacts from some other planets 2. Formation of Star running into it from behind, making it become a The sun is the star at the center of the solar system, Jupiter-sized planet much farther away from its parent it’s a typical star, so we can take the sun as an [8, 9]. Since the Jupiter-sized planet’s mass is very example to illustrate the rules of star formation. Since huge, it can attract various gas molecules to form a the sun revolves around the centre of the Milky Way dense atmosphere, and produce strong polar vortices Galaxy, it must have been a satellite produced by a during its rotation. Moreover, this kind of polar vortex parent star, just like the moon produced by the earth. can generate strong spiral currents, therefore form Therefore, the evolution of the sun from the original strong dipole magnetic fields, as is shown in Fig. 1, satellite to the main-sequence star of today has gone which is captured by NASA’s Hubble Space through many stages: first from satellite to planet, then Telescope. from planet to star [3, 4]. After the original sun Fig. 1 The spiral current generated by Jupiter’s arctic vortex. Although Jupiter’s mass is large enough to attract In 1994, humans witnessed a spectacular ends when hydrogen in the atmosphere, making the mass ratio of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impacted Jupiter. The hydrogen in Jupiter reach 75%, which is comparable collision produced scars that were visible from Earth, to the mass ratio of hydrogen in the sun, yet Jupiter but Jupiter hasn’t been detonated into a star [10]. lacks oxidants, therefore cannot burn directly. Jupiter According to scientists’ estimate, only one giant has a has an internal pressure of about 40 million standard mass 70 to 80 times that of Jupiter can it have enough atmospheric pressure, and its inner temperature is gravity, pressure and temperature to cause fusion 280,000℃, but it can’t be detonated directly into a star. reaction between hydrogen elements. In fact, the Formation and Evolution of Stars 3 proto-sun became a detonable star just by accreting carried up to the upper part of the cloud or even up to interstellar material near its orbit. the top of the vortex along the spiral cloud band by the A series of strong polar vortices can be formed updraft, thus forming a current from the bottom of the during the rapid rotation of the proto-sun, as is shown vortex to the top of the vortex in the spiral cloud band. in Fig. 2. This kind of vortex can continuously absorb In addition, since the clouds along a spiral cloud band hydrogen and other matter from the surrounding space are numerous and revolve rapidly, it is easy to have to the proto-sun, and they can also eject some material. violent frictions and collisions among clouds, Originally, the proto-sun has at least two groups of producing frequent electrical discharge or vortices, located at the South pole and the North pole thunderstorms. Each electrical discharge or respectively, which can span troposphere and thunderstorm acts as an electrostatic motor, which can stratosphere. As clouds swept in by a vortex of the send currents to the upper portion or the lower portion proto-sun sink faster and colder, after a long spiral of the vortex, preponderantly forming an intense path, at the bottom of the vortex, the velocity of the current following the cloud band from the bottom of airflow is tens of times faster than that of scale 12 the vortex to the top of the vortex. Since there is a typhoon, so the clouds have already condensed into continuous flow of currents along the spiral cloud ice, and the temperature in the vortex is much lower band from the bottom of the vortex to the top of the than that around it, hence from the distant Earth, the vortex, thus forming a powerful dipole magnetic field vortex looks like a small sunspot. But in fact, the with its magnetic north pole pointing towards the central depth of the vortex can reach 200,000 south pole of the proto-sun and its magnetic south kilometers, and its diameter can reach tens of pole pointing towards the noorth pole of the proto-sun, thousands of kilometers.