The White Horse Press Full citation: Tyrrell, Ian. "Acclimatisation and Environmental Renovation: Australian Perspectives on George Perkins Marsh." Environment and History 10, no. 2, "The Nature of G. P. Marsh: Tradition and Historical Judgement" special issue (May 2004): 153–67. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/3193. Rights: All rights reserved. © The White Horse Press 2004. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism or review, no part of this article may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission from the publishers. For further information please see http://www.whpress.co.uk. Acclimatisation and Environmental Renovation: Australian Perspectives on George Perkins Marsh IAN TYRRELL School of History University of New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052, Australia Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This article xplores the global dimensions of the thought of George Perkins Marsh and his Man and Nature (1864). It argues that Marsh was not simply influenced by American versus European contrasts in environmental change, nor was his work based only on conservation ideas, being influenced also by the examples of acclimatisation movements within the British empire settlement colonies. He incorporated material on acclimatisation from Australia into his major work, and his acceptance, with reservations, of aspects of acclimatisation practice, for example global eucalyptus plant transfers, was a key factor making his work influential within those settlement colonies after publication of Man and Nature. This global context reinforces the sense of Marsh as a thinker of his times, embedded in a larger and older discourse over the fate of forests and other natural resources. Marshʼs attempts to promote balance in humansʼ rela- tions with nature led him to explore a renovationist and improvement oriented ethic as much as a restorationist or preservationist one. Though widely regarded as the father of conservation, his legacy is more ambiguous and more complex, and his influence reflects changing perceptions of European colonial impacts in the nineteenth century. KEYWORDS Environmental renovation; acclimatisation; George Perkins Marsh In the voluminous discussion of American diplomat and pioneer conservationist thinker George Perkins Marsh, two interrelated ideas remain largely undetected. Best known as the author of the seminal text, Man and Nature (1864), Marsh was a product of global rather than purely American conditions and an advocate not of environmental preservation but of environmental renovation. Marshʼs work Environment and History 10 (2004): 153–67 © 2004 The White Horse Press 154 155 IAN TYRRELL ACCLIMATISATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RENOVATION reflected European as well as American influences. His interests and impact were shaped by the world of European expansion not only to the Americas but to places as far flung as the Pacific. Evidence for this global context is found in the incorporation by Marsh of Australian examples and, in turn, through Marshʼs influence in Australia, a society shaped in the nineteenth century by acclimatising impulses in environmental matters. Marsh, though in some respects innovative, was indirectly connected to this transnational acclimatising tradition that spread his impact as well as influenced his thought. These contexts implicate Marsh in concepts of environmental renovation. ʻFor all the novelty of Marshʼs insightsʼ, wrote David Lowenthal, his central themes were ʻcharacteristically Americanʼ.1 Marsh has been interpreted as an American trying to stop through preservationist strategies the environmental degradation that he observed in Europe from occurring in the United States. For Lowenthal, Marshʼs experience of environmental damage during his travels and residence in Europe confirmed impressions made in his youth, and stimulated the writing of Man and Nature. But Michel Girard went further. By charting European influences on early American conservationist thought, Girard called into question the originality and ʻAmericannessʼ of Marshʼs thought.2 Similarly, Richard Grove viewed Marshʼs thought in terms of a wider European imperial collision with the colonial world that took shape long before Marsh wrote. Here, Marsh seems even less innovative.3 Recently, Marcus Hall has shown the impact of Italy upon Marsh through the concept of environmental restoration: Marsh spoke of the need to restore lost environmental harmonies. Though Marsh is well-known as one who urged the preservation of forests in the US, he understood that in most situations, the impact of humankind was such that only restoration was possible. The introduction of the idea of environmental restoration is an important one, but as Hall notes, much remains to be done in teasing out the different meanings of ʻrestorationʼ. In Hallʼs account, it is Marshʼs experience of the unique American environment that produces his heightened interest in and understanding of European environmental change. Hall in effect sees Marsh as preservationist for the United States, and restorationist for Europe. ʻHe showed that while the New World must seek ways to preserve resources, the Old World must seek to restore them.ʼ4 Building upon these insights, I seek to show that the key to Marsh was his position as a generalist and a synthesiser whose voracious reading and broad interests enabled him to see environmental change on a world-wide, not just a trans-Atlantic scale. He absorbed existing environmental traditions such as that offered by German geographer Alexander von Humboldt and his disciples, but was more eclectic and less subservient to any particular system than many of his contemporaries. Marshʼs approach was empirical and historical, draw- ing examples from a wide range of sources, balancing negative and positive consequences of human impacts while putting the emphasis firmly upon the human transformation of the earth rather than on environmental determinism. 154 155 IAN TYRRELL ACCLIMATISATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RENOVATION Partly he could do this because of his long-range historical interests that in- cluded ancient civilisations. Moreover, he was an American living in Europe, at a time when Europe was continuing its economic expansion towards world dominance and extending its lines of communication globally. Never before had there been so much knowledge about so many diverse places. Marsh was ideally placed to synthesise this store of empirical detail, and to put the case for both preservation and restoration, which he saw not as alternatives but as complementary strategies in principles of environmental accounting that had to be both global and regional. European imperial communications networks of power and knowledge likewise aided immeasurably in the extension of the influence of these ideas. Marsh was indeed an advocate for restoration of what he understood to be natureʼs harmony, but in order to restore balance, in many instances it was nec- essary to mimic damaged nature by introducing new species, or old species and land management practices in different forms and combinations. That implicates Marsh in a concept to which he is rarely connected, environmental renovation: the reworking of the land to achieve a new kind of equilibrium, adding new concepts of cultural landscape and new layers of land management. Marshʼs renovationist side in turn links him to a discredited but influential movement, nineteenth-century acclimatisation, a movement widely held responsible for up- setting rather than restoring ecological balance. He was, however, more cautious in following acclimatisation than some who claimed to be his followers.5 Marsh was aware that the European transfer of plants and animals to the Americas was not the first, nor the last such transfer between regions. He reached back into the history of the ancient Middle East and even Asia for examples. Thus ʻthe introduction and successful breeding of fish of foreign species appear to have been long practiced in China and was not unknown to the Greeks and Romansʼ.6 He explained how the introduction of domesticated animals to many places in Europe and the Middle East had led to greater degradation of the landscape, especially denuded vegetation.7 ʻI am convinced that forests would soon cover many parts of the Arabian and African deserts, if man and domestic animals, especially the goat and the camel, were banished from themʼ, he wrote.8 Marshʼs examples are taken mainly from Europe and North America, but all regions were grist to his mill. This is apparent from the footnotes that, as Lowenthal observes, convey the ʻunique scope and flavour of the volumeʼ.9 Enhancing the global dimension to the larger environmental discourse in the nineteenth century was the spread of European settlement to the last major ʻundisturbedʼ continent, Australia. There, flora and fauna had been isolated for millions of years and Aboriginal hunter-gatherer cultures had not been transformed by the revolution of domesticated animals and plants. Australia plays a very minor part in Marshʼs overall analysis. But even though Marshʼs brief references to Australia, mainly occurring in the later editions of his book, do not alter its main themes, they did strengthen or modify certain opinions that he had developed. These notes 156 157 IAN TYRRELL ACCLIMATISATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RENOVATION reinforce our sense of Marshʼs omnivorous