Heroes and villains of the plant world? Plants are vital sources of food and medicine. To us, some seem like heroes while others are villains – often because of our misuse of them. Rice Around 20 per cent of human energy intake worldwide comes from rice. Rice is often eaten boiled, but can also be used to make rice flour, sweets, rice wine or vinegar, and products such as cosmetics and medicines, as well as being used in crafts and for religious purposes. There are currently over 40,000 types of rice in the world. It is thought to have originated in the Yangtze Valley in China, as far back as 6000–9000 BCE, but there is some debate about this. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a type of grass which typically grows in wet paddy fields. It has inflorescence panicle flowers, which are flowers that grow in clusters arranged on stems attached to the main branch. It can grow taller than 1 m, or even 5 m when in deep water. Nutrition White rice is high in carbohydrate and low in fat, and has moderate amounts of protein. It has lower fibreand vitamin and mineral content than brown rice. These differences are down to processing. A grain of white rice is a grain of brown rice minus the rice germ, the surrounding rice bran and the hull. White rice is created by milling and processing the grain until all that’s left is the endosperm. This process removes the nutritional benefits of the whole grain: the rice bran and germ provide fibre, protein, vitamins and minerals. But it makes the rice quicker to cook and easier to digest, so the energy from the grain can be used faster. Rice has an additional benefit of being free of glutens, the proteins found in wheat. These proteins can affect the immune system of some people, particularly those with autoimmune diseases and allergies such as coeliac disease. Fortification Because rice is such a popular food, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, it is often fortified with minerals such as iron, zinc, folate, iodine and calcium, and vitamins such as A, B12 and D, to address malnutrition. Early varieties of fortified rice were created by adding micronutrient powder that sticks to the grains. Unfortunately, even though instructions to not wash the grains appeared on packaging, typical preparation and cooking methods often rinsed away the enrichment. Three more sophisticated techniques are now used, which take into account cultural and societal standards: . coating involves spraying the surface of the grain with several layers of a vitamin and mineral wax or gum coat, which adheres to the grain better . hot extrusion involves passing a dough of rice flour, vitamins, minerals and water through an extruder at temperatures of 70–110°C, which leaves partially pre-cooked grain-like pieces that resemble rice grains . cold extrusion is similar to hot extrusion but uses a simple pasta press and works at lower temperatures In both types of extrusion, a ‘fake’ rice is created which is blended with natural polished rice at a ratio of around 1:200 grains. It remains a technical challenge to create fortified rice that not only looks like actual rice but stands up well during cooking and preparation. Research and development Rice has the smallest genome of all cereals, with only 12 chromosomes. This makes it a prime candidate for genetic modification. In the 1960s, a GM rice was created which was more resilient and yielded up to three times greater produce. However, these GM crops require more artificial pesticides and fertilisers in order to flourish. In China, new types of GM crops similar to rice and wheat, known as crop wild relatives, are being produced to thrive in extreme conditions, such as those that may result from climate change. Producing just 1 kg of rice takes up to 3,000 litres of water, so the rice on your plate has an impact on the environment. Researching this impact and finding solutions is vital for the planet’s future. Other research is looking at changing the structure of rice to reduce its calorific value, which could help to reduce obesity. For instance, scientists in Sri Lanka are adding coconut oil to white rice while it boils and cooling it for 12 hours before oven-drying and then reheating it. This process lowers the GI (glycaemic index) of the rice so its sugars are absorbed more slowly by the body. Some of the starches in the rice are removed or converted into forms that are harder to digest, which results in less excess glucose in the body that would get stored as fat. Soy You can eat it. You can drink it. You can raise livestock with it, plant it to fertilise land, or process it to make varnishes, soaps, inks – even explosives. Eat processed food and you’ll likely ingest it without even knowing. Yet live in the UK and you’ll probably never see it grown. What is it? Soy (Glycine max), the world’s third most valuable crop – and arguably the most versatile. Soy’s success G. max is an annual, self-fertilising legume that can grow up to two metres tall. It’s valued for its resource- rich beans, which yield approximately 20 per cent oil and 40 per cent protein. The beans are principally sought after today because they’re a very cheap source of protein. Soybeans have proved popular for millennia due to their flexibility as a food. They also offer great nutritional value, containing no cholesterol, low amounts of saturated fat, and good levels of fibre, zinc, iron and calcium. As soy is a good source of all of the essential amino acids (those that cannot be made by the body itself, such as tryptophan, phenylalanine and hystidine – see our amino acid images for more information), it’s often a staple food for vegetarians (most people rely on meat as their source of essential amino acids). However, G. max is actually classified as an oilseed. Its oil has dozens of culinary and industrial uses, and can even be used as a biofuel. A further benefit is that, like many legumes, G. max fixes nitrogen, and so provides soils with nutrients. The plant’s roots Cultivated for at least 3,000 years in China and Japan, the bean first spread across East Asia as a useful food that could be eaten fresh or dried, fermented into soy sauce, or powdered and mixed with water to make milk (and then curdled to make cheese-like tofu). It wasn’t until the mid-19th century that it really began to be noticed outside of Asia, and its modest early successes in the West weren’t as a foodstuff. Unable to tolerate the harsh frosts of northern Europe, the bean grew well in the USA, where it was planted for livestock to forage and to replenish nitrogen in the soil of cotton fields. But by the 20th century, agriculturalists had discovered the bean’s high oil and protein yield, and so industrial use of soy oil accelerated (Henry Ford even made a car using soy-based plastics). Soy meal also started being used to bulk out food and make animal feed. “Uncle Sam needs soybean oil to win the war” It was World War II that really raised soy’s popularity. In the early 1940s, the US government, needing to replace plant oils and edible fats that could no longer be imported from Asia, implored farmers to “grow more soybeans for victory”. Not only did the bean help feed wartime America and its allies, but its oils were used to glue US torpedo boats together and make foam for US Navy fire extinguishers. Soy became integral to America’s war effort. Between 1940 and 1946, US production of the ‘miracle bean’ tripled. Working after the war to put the rest of the world back on its feet – and to sustain its thriving soy industry – the USA then exported soy and its products to foreign markets across the globe. This launched the widespread use of soy that we see today. A flowering modern industry Global soy production increased nearly ten-fold between 1961 and 2009, and is double in 2016 what it was in the mid-1990s. But, while it is a common ingredient in processed food the world over, direct consumption of soy only accounts for a small fraction of what we grow; it is the global rise in meat consumption that is responsible for the skyrocketing of soy production. 85 per cent of soybeans are crushed into oil and meal, with almost all of the meal – 98 per cent – then being processed into high-protein animal feed. And with the popularity of meat continuing to increase as global prosperity rises, demand for soy is likely to grow even more. Cutting down the beanstalk? This soaring demand has come at a cost. Valuable habitats have been transformed into soy farms, particularly across the Cerrado and Amazon regions of Brazil. As well as disrupting ecosystems, the creation of vast tracts of farmland causes soil erosion, displaces people, induces climate change and drains water reserves. A further problem is genetically modified (GM) soy, which has become very popular as growers look to increase their yields. GM soy is resistant to the herbicide glyphosate, so farmers can spray this weedkiller directly onto their crops, wiping out the weeds while the soy plants thrive. But, over time, the intense use of glyphosate has led to ‘superweeds’ developing resistance, meaning that more of it has to be used to have an effect.