Spaces of Insurgency: Petro-Violence and the Geography of Conflict in Nigeria’s Niger Delta By Elias Edise Courson A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Michael J. Watts, Chair Professor Ugo G. Nwokeji Professor Jake G. Kosek Spring 2016 Spaces of Insurgency: Petro-Violence and the Geography of Conflict in Nigeria’s Niger Delta © 2016 Elias Edise Courson Abstract Spaces of Insurgency: Petro-Violence and the Geography of Conflict in Nigeria’s Niger Delta by Elias Edise Courson Doctor of Philosophy in Geography University of California, Berkeley Professor Michael J. Watts, Chair This work challenges the widely held controversial “greed and grievance” (resource curse) narrative by drawing critical insights about conflicts in the Niger Delta. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria has attracted substantial scholarly attention in view of the paradox of poverty and violence amidst abundant natural resources. This discourse suggests that persistent resource- induced conflicts in the region derive from either greed or grievance. Instead, the present work draws inspiration from the political geography of the Niger Delta, and puts the physical area at the center of its analysis. The understanding that the past and present history of a people is etched in their socio-political geography inspires this focus. Whereas existing literatures engages with the Niger Delta as a monolithic domain, my study takes a more nuanced approach, which recognizes a multiplicity of layers mostly defined by socio-geographical peculiarities of different parts of the region and specificity of conflicts its people experience. In specific terms, the study demarcates Rivers and Delta States in Niger Delta into two distinctive domains – Eastern and Western Niger Delta respectively.1 Although each domain has experienced violent conflicts of various dimensions and proportions, such conflicts are distinct and distinguishable in several respects: in terms of their genealogy, patterns, trajectories, actors, motivations and modalities. These important distinctions, in turn, define and determine the nature and responses to conflicts generated over the years. The two conflict domains of Rivers and Delta States are shaped, then, by local socio-political dynamics within the Niger Delta. There are however, cross-delta linkages and common burdens connecting these domains such as: corporate imperialism, marginalization, dispossession, environmental degradation, 1 It is instructive to note from the onset that Bayelsa State which is today considered Central Niger Delta was an integral part of Eastern Niger Delta (Rivers State) until 1996 when it was carved out as a separate state and refered to as Central Niger Delta. In this work therefore Bayelsa State is mostly treated as part of the Eastern Niger Delta. In the oil industry up till now the region is divided into eastern and western operations. Except for oil activities in Ekeremor Local Government Area in Bayelsa State which falls under the western operations, all of Bayelsa State oil operations fall under eastern operations. 1 repression, poverty, unemployment and the quest for social justice. These common denominators influenced Paul Collier 2 and most social science scholars to categorize the Niger Delta holistically as a conflict zone. Unfortunately and significantly, however, all these scholars have ignored the fact that in countries such as Nigeria, there is not just one conflict (resource conflict); rather, there are several, and they cannot be easily placed under the blanket category “resource curse.” This study thus, rethinks Collier and conventional social science narratives on the Niger Delta conflict with a view to understanding the complicated geo-political dynamics of the region. The work shows that conflicts in the Niger Delta are precipitated by age-long animosities arising from land disputes, territorial claims, chieftancy tussles and demand for political autonomy fueled in the contemporary moment by petro-capitalism (petro-relations) and blurred by the spoils of oil. The methodology for the study is a comparative analysis of East versus West Niger Delta. It draws on primary and secondary data sources as well as making extensive use of archival materials in order to elicit the historical, geographical and contemporary dimensions of the conflicts. 2 Collier, P., Bottom Billion: Why the Poor Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About it, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 2 Dedication In memory of: A caring, loving and great Mum, Mrs. Silipah Courson An ecological justice activist, Oronto Natei Douglas A genius and academic mentor, Moses Oke i Acknowledgements My debts of gratitude are many and too significant to be captured in just a few paragraphs. However, I would like to acknowledge faculty members, graduate student colleagues and staff members of the Geography Department at University of California, Berkeley. I greatly appreciate the immense kindness and generosity of my dissertation committee chair, Professor Michael Watts for his care, guidance and support in making this adventure possible. I would also like to thank my committee members, Professor Ugo Nwokeji and Professor Jake Kosek for their guidance, invaluable suggestions and help throughout my studies. Special thanks to Professor Nancy Peluso, a member of my oral committee, who was always willing to help and give suggestions on my work. I am grateful to Rotary International Foundation for the World Peace Fellowship award (2008-10) at the start of the program, and to the Social Science Research Council, USA, for the Doctoral Dissertation Research grant to support my field research in Nigeria. I would like to express my gratitude to Goodluck Jonathan and Kingsley Kuku for their financial support towards the completion of my course work and initial writing stages. I also want to thank all the librarians and archivists that I encountered over the last few years in Enugu and Ibadan, Nigeria and Kew, Richmond, London. I would like to sincerely thank Matthew Tonlahga, Omolade Adunbi, Ike Okonta, Eron Budi, Dennis Otuaro, Patrick Naagbanton, Charles Ukeje, Kathryn Nwajiaku, Paul Bebenimibo, Doifie Ola, Miabiye Kuromiema, Felix Tuodolo, Isaac Osuoka, Adam Romero, Aaron de Grassi, Ukoha Ukiwo, Kestin Pondi, Dimieari Von Kemedi, Tari Dadiowei, Emem Okon, Daphne Wysham, Laura Livoti and Goodluck Ebelo for their support and assistance during my field research in Nigeria and beyond. My research would not have been successful without their help and encouragement. Lastly, I want to thank my wife Dr. Alero Kufre and our kids, Perekeme Emmanuel and Ebiegberi Bryce for all the support, patience, love and understanding while I was away to complete this dissertation. Words cannot express my gratitude, love and affection. ii Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iii Figures ......................................................................................................................................... vii Preface ........................................................................................................................................ viii Chapter One: Greed, Grievance and the Oil Curse: Rethinking the Niger Delta Crisis ....... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Theorizing the Oil Curse ........................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Africa: Civil Wars, Armed Conflicts and Insurgencies ............................................................. 9 1.4 Rethinking Civil War and Conflict in Spatial Terms .............................................................. 13 1.5 The Political Economy of Oil in Nigeria ................................................................................. 16 1.6 Nigeria as an Oil State ............................................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two: From Resistance to Ethnic Mobilization: Phases of Conflict in the Niger Delta (1850-1999) ......................................................................................................................... 26 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 26 2.2 Revolts and Repressions in Precolonial Niger Delta ............................................................... 27 2.2.1 King Jaja’s Arrest and Deportation ............................................................................... 30 2.2.2 Nana: The Ebrohimi Expedition ................................................................................... 37 2.2.3 The Akassa Invasion ..................................................................................................... 42 2.2.4 Summary ......................................................................................................................