Discovering the Movement Sequences of Elite and Junior Elite Netball Athletes by ALICE J. SWEETING Bachelor of Applied Science – Human Movement (Honours) This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY Supervisor: Associate Professor Robert J. Aughey Co-supervisor: Dr. Stuart J. Cormack (Australian Catholic University) Co-supervisor: Dr. Stuart Morgan (Australian Institute of Sport) College of Sport and Exercise Science Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL) Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Performance Research Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) Netball Australia 2017 ABSTRACT ! This thesis investigated the movement sequences of elite and junior-elite female netball athletes using a local positioning system (LPS). Study one determined the indoor validity of an LPS, specifically the Wireless ad hoc System for Positioning (WASP), for measuring distance, velocity and angular velocity whilst sprinting and walking five non- linear courses. The criterion measure used to assess WASP validity was Vicon, a motion analysis system. During all sprinting and walking drills, WASP had an acceptable accuracy for measuring total distance covered (coefficient of variation, CV; < 5.2%). Similarly, WASP had an acceptable accuracy across all sprinting and walking drills for measuring mean velocity (CV; < 6.5%). During all sprinting drills, WASP had acceptable accuracy for measuring mean and peak angular velocity (CV; < 3%). A increased bias was observed during all walking drills, compared to sprinting, likely due to radio-frequency (RF) interference from the metal-clad indoor stadium where validation trials were conducted. Researchers and practitioners may use WASP to accurately quantify the non-linear movement of athletes during indoor court-based sports although should be aware of the increased bias during walking movement. Spatiotemporal data, obtained by WASP, was analysed for the movement sequences performed during competitive netball matches in study two. Traditional analysis of team-sport athlete match activity typically bins velocities and accelerations into different zones. These zones are discretised using threshold values that are usually based on other research, determined arbitarily or from proprietary software. In study two, k-means clustering was used to identify four velocity, three acceleration and four angular velocity clusters from netball athlete spatiotemporal data collected by WASP. The frequently recurring latent patterns of athlete movement across a quarter of netball were identified with sprinting, acceleration and deceleration a common feature. ! i Study three investigated the movement sequences performed by each of the seven netball playing positions, during competitive matches at the elite level. A total of 10 frequently recurring combinations of movement were discovered with only the wing attack (WA), goal attack (GA) and goal defence (GD) closely related. According to the frequently recurring latent movement sequences performed, the goal shooter (GS) and GD were the least similar netball playing positions at the elite level. Discovering the relative frequency of recurring movement sequences calculates a characteristic signature that differentiates each of the seven netball playing positions. Rather than structuring training around time spent in pre-determined velocity or acceleration zones, the developed movement sequencing technique allows practitioners to focus on training the specific movement patterns performed by each playing position. Study four investigated the movement sequences performed by elite and junior-elite female netball athletes during competitive matches. A total of 11 frequently recurring combinations of movement were discovered, with the GS and goal keeper (GK) the most closely related netball playing positions across both standards. Pairwise comparisons revealed large differences across playing standards, suggesting that specific physical training may be required for athletes to move up a playing standard. The playing positions of netball, at the elite and junior-elite level, may have individualised training programs to target the specific movement sequences performed. To gain a further understanding of netball athlete movement and to apply the methdoology to spatiotemporal data from other team-sports, more matches should be incorporated to train and test the technique. The findings of this thesis identify that the WASP can accurately quantify the non- linear movement of athletes indoors. Spatiotemporal data can be analysed for the movement sequences performed by athletes, according to playing position and standard. Junior-elite netball athletes may require specific conditioning to perform the different movement patterns of elite netball athletes. ! ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completing a PhD is a challenging and rewarding journey that would not be possible without the help, encouragement and guidance from many people. Rob, thank you for taking on a soy hot chocolate drinking triathlete back in 2011. I am so very grateful for your guidance, patience and passion about research. During the past five years, I have learnt an incredible amount not only about research but myself. Thank you for believing in me. Stu Cormack, thank you for your consistent check ins and discussions about sport research. I appreciate our chats and your outlook on all things performance! Stuart Morgan, thank you for introducing me to the world of sport analytics and R. I have learnt (and continue to learn!) so much from you and am truly appreciative of all your hard work plus time. Thank you to Victoria University, the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Netball Australia and the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) for providing the opportunity to conduct this research. Tim Kelly and the Performance Research team, thank you for the support and dedication to this project. Leon Williams, thank you for all the assistance in surveying netball courts so this research could take place. Elissa Phillips, I am so very appreciative of your assistance with Vicon and patience during my analysis period. Conducting research in an elite sport setting can be logistically challenging but the team at Netball Australia provided amazing support and passion. Lisa Alexander, I feel priviliged to have considerable spent time learning from you and the Netball Diamonds over the past few years. Thank you for welcoming me into a truly high-performing team and your interest in my research – particuarly the maths! Laura Juliff, thanks for the laughs and passionate discussions we have about female sport. I am so grateful for your support and friendship. To all the athletes who participated in this research, thank you ! iv for your commitment to this project. I have so very much respect for your hard-work, dedication and humbleness to improve the sport of netball, at all levels. Kristal, Amber, Emily and Mat – when I first started this academic journey I never imagined that I would find such generous, funny and talented people to call friends. I am so thankful for the memories, coffees and laughs we shared, plus the close friendship we have now developed. To those in PB201 and W217, I am so proud to be an #ISEALHDR and look forward to seeing your future work published. My family have been instrumental in allowing me to explore my passion and understand what to say when things don’t go well! Thank you for always believing in and encouraging me. Finally to Tom… we got there! Thank you for all your support, coffee, steady supply of Malteasers, being a running partner and consistent encouragement over the past five years. An Honours and a PhD later, you made the whole process so rewarding. I am so very appreciative of your love and kindness. ! v ! ABBREVIATIONS 3D Three-dimensional AFL Australian Football League AIS Australian Institute of Sport AU Arbitrary Units C Centre CO2 Carbon dioxide COD Change of Direction CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CV Coefficient of Variation deg.s-¹ Degrees per second FFT Fast Fourier Transform FFT Fast Fourier Transform GA Goal Attack GD Goal Defence GK Goal Keeper GPS Global Positioning Systems GS Goal Shooter HIR High Intensity-Running Hz Hertz ICC Intraclass Correlation Coefficient ! vi LCS Longest Common Substring LPS Local Positioning Systems m·min-1 Metres per minute m·s-1 Metres per second m·s-2 Metres per second squared MAS Maximal Aerobic Speed O2 Oxygen RF Radio Frequency RMS Root Mean Squared SEE Standard Error of the Estimate SEM Standard Error of Measurement SOM Self-Organising Maps TE Typical Error TTNC Trans-Tasman Netball Competition V̇ O2 Maximum Rate of Oxygen Consumption VT2 Second Ventilatory Threshold WA Wing Attack WASP Wireless ad hoc System for Positioning WD Wing Defence ! vii PUBLICATIONS The following work has been presented at scientific meetings and/ or published in peer reviewed journals in support of this thesis: 1. Sweeting, A. J., Cormack, S. J., Morgan, S., and Aughey, R. J. (2016). When Is A Sprint A Sprint?: A Review of the Analysis of Team-Sport Athlete Activity Profile. Under Review – Submitted to Frontiers in Physiology on 23rd January 2017. (Chapter 3) 2. Sweeting, A. J., Cormack, S. J., Morgan, S., and Aughey, R. J. (2016). The Accuracy of a Radio-Frequency Tracking System for Indoor Court Sports. Currently being prepared for submission to International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. (Chapter 4) 3. Sweeting, A. J., Cormack, S. J.,