From “form” to function and back again: a comparative analysis of form-based and function-based recognition of adult relationships in law. Kathy Griffiths Cardiff School of Law and Politics Cardiff University Submitted for examination: May 2017 This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy DECLARATION This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed …K Griffiths…………………………………………… (candidate) Date …10/08/2017…….…………….……… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Signed …K Griffiths…………………………….…………… (candidate) Date …10/08/2017………………….…………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated, and the thesis has not been edited by a third party beyond what is permitted by Cardiff University’s Policy on the Use of Third Party Editors by Research Degree Students. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed …K Griffiths…………………………….……….…… (candidate) Date …10/08/2017………….………………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed …K Griffiths…………………………………………..…..….. (candidate) Date …10/08/2017…………………… STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards & Quality Committee. Signed …K Griffiths…………………………………………..……… (candidate) Date …10/08/2017…………….……… 2 Thesis summary This thesis explores the desirability and viability of a function-based as opposed to a form-based approach to adult relationship recognition in law. It explores the benefits and difficulties with both form-based and function-based approaches to determine whether either has any significant advantage over the other, both in relation to a need to provide a system of relationship recognition that is inclusive of the diversity of family relationships formed today, and in relation to the protective and symbolic functions of family law. To do this, the thesis will compare the English and Welsh approach to relationship recognition with that adopted in Australia. The thesis will show that form- and function-based approaches share many of the same benefits and both can be flexible because they can be used in ways that are inclusive of a variety of relationship types and both approaches have their disadvantages. On balance, function-based systems appear more principled than form-based systems because they focus on the quality of the relationship and not merely on its structure and function-based systems are better placed to protect the vulnerable partner in a relationship because there is no need to opt-in for legal recognition. But, form-based systems should not be abandoned because they have the benefit of being administratively efficient, and are better placed to serve family law’s symbolic function. Both form- and function-based approaches have the potential to be used in radical ways to respond to the needs of real families, but social reality and political will limits the development of both approaches to relationship recognition. 3 Acknowledgments I have to start by thanking the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol, especially Dr Dylan Phillips, for funding the research project and supporting me throughout my time as a postgraduate student at Cardiff University. This thesis would not have been possible without the Coleg, and Dylan’s unwavering support. Diolch yn fawr am fy mherswadio i ail-gychwyn, Dylan! I’d like to thank my fellow PhD candidates, especially my fellow troglodytes (Chen, Alison, Steffan, Derek, Katie and Alan), for the support (counselling?!) and laughter throughout my time at 69 Park Place. I’d also like to thank my parents, for helping me pay the rent and ensuring I didn’t starve when things got tough. And thanks goes especially to Kris, for putting up with me over the past few months. I owe you a bottle of Dom (or 3). Most of all, I’d like to thank my supervisors, Dr Leanne Smith and Professor Gillian Douglas, for their invaluable support, encouragement, inspiration and never-ending patience throughout this process. Without your insight, feedback and generosity I’m not sure that I’d ever have submitted. 4 Table of Contents Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................ 12 Table of cases ........................................................................................................................................ 13 England and Wales ............................................................................................................................ 13 Australia ............................................................................................................................................ 15 European Court of Human Rights ..................................................................................................... 18 Table of legislation ................................................................................................................................ 19 England and Wales ............................................................................................................................ 19 Australia ............................................................................................................................................ 20 A note on terminology .......................................................................................................................... 23 Table 1 ................................................................................................................................... 23 Table 2 ................................................................................................................................... 24 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 25 Aims of the thesis .............................................................................................................................. 28 Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................................................... 30 Chapter 1 – Changing relationship practices ........................................................................................ 32 1.1 The changing demographic picture ................................................................................................ 32 1.1.1 Formalised relationships .......................................................................................................... 32 1.1.1.1 Marriage and divorce ........................................................................................................ 32 1.1.1.2 Civil partnerships, the Australian registered relationships and dissolution ..................... 35 1.1.2 Informal relationships .............................................................................................................. 36 1.1.2.1 Cohabitants ....................................................................................................................... 36 1.1.2.2 Other living arrangements ................................................................................................ 38 1.1.2.2a LATs: Living-Apart-Together ........................................................................................ 39 1.2 Changing social attitudes ................................................................................................................ 41 1.2.1 Views on marriage and cohabitation ....................................................................................... 41 1.2.2 Attitudes towards other relationships ..................................................................................... 43 5 1.3 The meaning and significance of ‘family’ ........................................................................................ 44 1.3.1 The changing nature of personal relationships ....................................................................... 44 1.3.2 The concept of ‘family’............................................................................................................. 47 1.3.2.1 The family we live by ......................................................................................................... 48 1.3.2.1a The traditional family .................................................................................................. 48 1.3.2.1b The modern family ...................................................................................................... 49 1.3.2.2 The family we live with ..................................................................................................... 50 1.3.2.2a Thinking of family in a fluid way: the family practices approach ................................ 50 1.3.2.2b Defining family by its functions? ................................................................................