PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST DOES HIGH SELF-ESTEEM CAUSE BETTER PERFORMANCE, INTERPERSONAL SUCCESS, HAPPINESS, OR HEALTHIER LIFESTYLES? Roy F. Baumeister,1 Jennifer D. Campbell,2 Joachim I. Krueger,3 and Kathleen D. Vohs4 1Florida State University; 2University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; 3Brown University; and 4University of Utah Summary—Self-esteem has become a household word. those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favorit- Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts ism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination. on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self- Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause of vio- esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits—an lence. Narcissism leads to increased aggression in retaliation assumption that is critically evaluated in this review. for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to external- Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by izing behavior and delinquency, although some studies have several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem found that there are no effects or that the effect of self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize ob- vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and jective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a het- lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different sub- erogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept categories of high self-esteem. their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the conceited individuals. research has not clearly established causation, we are per- The modest correlations between self-esteem and school suaded that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to Low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the re- under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffer hy- sult of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self- pothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic stress, but other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indi- performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job cating that the negative effects of low self-esteem are mainly performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, al- felt in good times. Still others find that high self-esteem leads to though the correlations vary widely, and the direction of cau- happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances. sality has not been established. Occupational success may High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self- drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything, esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self- good task performance, with the important exception that esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure. self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females. People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and at- Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two cate- tractive, to have better relationships, and to make better im- gories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not pressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic in- objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcis- terventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings sists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventu- do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self- ally. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved out- duration of relationships. comes. In view of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indis- High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in criminate praise might just as easily promote narcissism, with groups and to criticize the group’s approach. Leadership its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable have indirect effects. Relative to people with low self-esteem, behavior and self-improvement. Most people feel that self-esteem is important. It is difficult, tion that bears on their own self-esteem, such as being told that if not impossible, for people to remain indifferent to informa- they are incompetent, attractive, untrustworthy, or lovable. In- creases and decreases in self-esteem generally bring strong Address correspondence to Roy F. Baumeister, Department of Psychology, emotional reactions. Moreover, these fluctuations are often co- Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-1270. incident with major successes and failures in life. Subjective VOL. 4, NO. 1, MAY 2003 Copyright © 2003 American Psychological Society 1 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST Benefits of Self-Esteem experience creates the impression that self-esteem rises when Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968), showed that teachers’ false, one wins a contest, garners an award, solves a problem, or gains unfounded beliefs about their students later became objective, acceptance to a social group, and that it falls with corresponding verifiable realities in the performance of those students. In the failures. This pervasive correlation may well strengthen the im- same way, it is quite plausible that either high or low self- pression that one’s level of self-esteem is not just the outcome, esteem, even if initially false, may generate a self-fulfilling but indeed the cause, of life’s major successes and failures. prophecy and bring about changes in the objective reality of the But is self-esteem a cause of important consequences in self and its world. life? In this monograph, we report the results of a survey of Then again, self-esteem might not bring about such changes. major research findings bearing on this question. Our mission Many researchers, clinicians, teachers, parents, and pundits was to conduct a thorough review of empirical findings—em- have taken it as an article of faith that high self-esteem will phasizing the most methodologically rigorous research stud- bring about positive outcomes. Such an assumption was per- ies—to ascertain whether high self-esteem is in fact a cause of haps reasonable several decades ago, given the lack of firm positive or negative outcomes. We anticipated we would find data either way and the anecdotal impressions and theoretical that self-esteem has positive value for bringing about some hy- bases for assuming that self-esteem has strong effects. It is par- pothesized benefits, but not others. Such a pattern would pre- ticularly understandable that practitioners would accept this as- sumably allow an accurate and nuanced understanding of just sumption without proof, because they cannot generally afford what high self-esteem is good for. This would be beneficial to admonish their suffering clients to hang on for a few decades both for theory (in that it would promote a better understanding until needed research is conducted. They must use the best evi- of self-esteem as well as the outcomes it predicts) and for prac- dence available at the time to design their interventions. tical applications—and even for determining whether efforts at By now, however, the excuse of inadequate data is begin- boosting self-esteem are worth undertaking in order to solve ning to wear thin. The fascination with self-esteem that began particular social problems. to spread during the 1970s infected researchers too, and in the Self-esteem is literally defined by how much value people past couple of decades, a number of methodologically rigor- place on themselves. It is the evaluative component of self- ous, large-scale investigations on the possible effects of self- knowledge. High self-esteem refers to a highly favorable glo- esteem have been conducted. We do not think all the final an- bal evaluation of the self. Low self-esteem, by definition, refers swers are in, but many of them are taking shape. There is no to an unfavorable definition of the self. (Whether this signifies longer any justification for simply relying on anecdotes, im- an absolutely unfavorable or relatively unfavorable evaluation pressions, and untested assumptions about the value of self- is a problematic distinction, which we discuss later in connec- esteem. tion with the distribution of self-esteem scores.) Self-esteem does not carry any definitional requirement of accuracy what- WHY STUDY SELF-ESTEEM? soever. Thus, high self-esteem may refer to an accurate, justi- fied, balanced appreciation of one’s worth as a person and In the heady days of the 1970s, it might have seemed possi- one’s successes and competencies, but it can also refer to an in- ble to assert that self-esteem has a causal effect on every aspect flated, arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of conceited su- of human life, and by the 1980s, the California legislature periority over others. By the same token, low self-esteem can might well have been persuaded that funding a task force to in- be either an accurate, well-founded understanding of one’s crease the self-esteem of Californians would ultimately pro- shortcomings as a person or a distorted, even pathological duce a huge financial return because reducing welfare dependency, sense of insecurity and inferiority. unwanted pregnancy, school failure, crime, drug addiction, and Self-esteem is thus perception rather than reality. It refers to other problems would save large amounts of taxpayers’ money.