LMU/LLS Theses and Dissertations Summer July 2015 Defining Defiance: African-American Middle School Students’ Perspective on the Impact of Teachers’ Disciplinary Referrals Patricia Ray Loyola Marymount University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd Part of the Education Commons Recommended Citation Ray, Patricia, "Defining Defiance: African-American Middle School Students’erspectiv P e on the Impact of Teachers’ Disciplinary Referrals" (2015). LMU/LLS Theses and Dissertations. 182. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd/182 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School. It has been accepted for inclusion in LMU/LLS Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LOYOLA MARYMOUNT UNIVERSITY Defining Defiance: African-American Middle School Students’ Perspective on the Impact of Teachers’ Disciplinary Referrals by Patricia Ray A dissertation presented to the Faculty of the School of Education, Loyola Marymount University, in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Education 2015 i Defining Defiance: African-American Middle School Students’ Perspective on the Impact of Teachers’ Disciplinary Referrals Copyright © 2015 by Patricia Ray ii iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While my name is listed as the sole author of this study, it was by no means a solitary endeavor. I would like to express my deep appreciation to all those who supported and encouraged me on this journey. First and foremost, I would like to thank my participants, 11 young African-American boys who trusted me, confided in me, and answered my questions with grace, humor, and honesty. They epitomize the reason why I strive to learn and improve myself to grow professionally. I know that I have been changed by my work with these boys, and it is my sincere hope that the voices of these young men will inspire other educators to work toward making schools more inclusionary for all students. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the District and at my school site, especially the superintendent and my principal. The superintendent provided inspiration by earning her doctorate in 2010, and then she supported me fully on my journey. She granted me permission to leave work early every Monday to attend class, gave me permission to conduct my research in our district, and she trusted me to “do right” by our students. My site principal was also a tremendous source of support. She shooed me out of work every Monday for class, understood when I needed to take a day off or leave early to write, and most importantly, she believed in the significance of this study. And she could make me laugh when I needed it most. My Cohort 9 colleagues and professors also supported and believed in me. I am a better person for having been a part of this group. I was encouraged by their work and humbled by their enthusiasm for my work. I would especially like to thank Allison and Grizel. They were both terrific sounding boards who always challenged me to do my best work. This research would never have made it this far without the guidance of my advisor, Dr. iv Marta Baltodano. Marta believed in the importance of this project from day one, and her dedication to the pursuit of social justice is inspiring. She continually challenged and supported me while encouraging me to always do my best. I am also indebted to my committee members, Dr. Jill Bickett and Dr. Martha McCarthy. They inspired me, encouraged me, and helped me to stay on track. Jill and Martha read my work thoroughly, listened to me, and heard me. Their thoughtful comments and insightful questions helped to move my work to the next level. I am so grateful. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ vi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 California Education Code ............................................................................................................. 2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 5 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 9 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 10 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................. 10 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 11 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 14 Limitations and Delimitations ....................................................................................................... 16 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 17 Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................................................... 19 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 20 Critical Pedagogy .................................................................................................................. 20 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy .............................................................................................. 23 History of Inequality ..................................................................................................................... 25 Discipline Gap .............................................................................................................................. 29 Defiance ................................................................................................................................ 31 Federal Policies ..................................................................................................................... 33 State Polices .......................................................................................................................... 34 Local Policies ........................................................................................................................ 36 School-to-Prison Pipeline ............................................................................................................. 38 Policies Impacting School Discipline Practices ............................................................................ 41 Zero Tolerance ...................................................................................................................... 41 No Child Left Behind ............................................................................................................ 43 Cultural Mismatch ........................................................................................................................ 44 Student Voice ................................................................................................................................ 52 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ............................................................................................ 57 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 57 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 58 Research Design ............................................................................................................................ 58 vi Qualitative Methodology ...................................................................................................... 58 Research Setting .................................................................................................................... 60 Participants and Sampling Criteria ....................................................................................... 62 Access ................................................................................................................................... 63 Methods of Data Collection .........................................................................................................