September 2019 21 Measuring Hope in Jail Inmates with Substance Use Problems Yang Yang University of Louisiana at Lafayette TREATMENT RESEARCH HAS identified a strategies that would lead to goal attainment; Seidner, Burling, Pagliarini, & Robbins-Sisco, variety of factors influencing the effectiveness agency is the mental energy or willpower that 1998; Logan, Kilmer, & Marlatt, 2010), greater of substance use treatment for criminal justice motivates oneself to attain the goals (Snyder, time abstinent (Irving et al., 1998), higher (CJ) populations (see review by Greenfield 2002). Research has indicated that hopeful self-efficacy (Irving et al., 1998), and better et al., 2007; Moos, 2007; Prendergast, Podus, thinking has the power to alleviate depression, treatment outcomes (Kaskutas et al., 2005; Chang, & Urada, 2002). However, the lit- assist in goal setting, and improve mental and Kelly, Stout, Zywiak, & Schneider, 2006). In erature has disproportionately focused on physical health among high-risk populations a pilot study, Stearns, Yang, and Boudreaux the reduction of pathological symptoms, (Hergenrather, Geishecker, Clark, & Rhodes, (2018) implemented a four-week intervention such as reducing drug use, prolonging drug 2013; Rosenstreich, Feldman, Davidson, Maza, to develop and enhance hope among female abstinence, and addressing related social and & Margalit, 2015). In the event of challenges, jail inmates with substance use problems; behavioral problems. There is an increasing people with hope tend to evaluate potential the study found that resources that provide call for research on the phenomenon of human barriers and develop strategies to overcome structure and discipline were necessary to flourishing and psychological strengths (Keyes barriers or switch to alternative pathways to successful delivery of the hope-based inter- & Haidt, 2003; Krentzman, 2013), and the goal attainment (Snyder, 2000). Also, hopeful vention among these women. This suggests delineation of relations between strengths and people may persevere by self-motivating and that more research is needed to understand deficits (Woldgabreal, Day, & Ward, 2016). In regulating emotions, thoughts, and behaviors justice-involved individuals and factors that practice, interventions should not only focus to desirable goals (Snyder, 2000). In this sense, are associated with hope. on reducing risk factors but also capitalize on hope is particularly instrumental for high-risk psychological strengths or positive function- individuals (such as those involved in the Characteristics of Criminal ing (both terms are used interchangeably in justice system) in propelling them to achieve Justice Populations this study). The current study measures one desired goals in the midst of life adversity. Justice-involved individuals usually grow up type of positive functioning (i.e., hope) and Despite being a highly desirable cognitive in environments rife with stressors and chal- examines the relations between hope and risk state in inmates, hope has not been addressed lenges, such as poor social support, financial factors in jail inmates, the findings of which adequately in research with CJ populations and legal challenges, unstable housing, could help practitioners develop programs (Stearns, Yang, & Boudreaux, 2018) or sub- and other criminogenic contextual factors responsive to address risk factors and promote stance use treatment (Krentzman, 2013). With (Boardman, Finch, Ellison, Williams, & a positive lifestyle and general well-being. 100 jail inmates in Ontario, Martin & Stermac Jackson, 2001; Morenoff & Harding, 2014; (2009) revealed that inmates with lower levels Naser & Visher, 2006) and are likely to be Hope of hope are at high risk of being involved exposed to traumatic experiences (Green, Hope is a psychological strength buffering in illegal behaviors and persist in maintain- Miranda, Daroowalla, & Siddique, 2005; the negative consequences experienced from ing such a behavior. Marshall, Champagne, James, 2004; James & Glaze, 2006; McClellan, adversity (Hellman & Gwinn, 2017) and Brown, and Miller (1997) studied hope in Farabee, & Crouch, 1997). Thus, they are likely facilitating general well-being (Magaletta & sex offenders and indicated that increases in to develop psychological maladjustment in Oliver, 1999). Snyder (2000) defines hope hope were associated with greater empathy, terms of the feeling of worthlessness, depres- as a cognitive-based motivational theory, in enhanced intimacy, and lowered feelings of sion, and anxiety (Chamberland, Fallon, which two components—“pathways” and loneliness. In the area of substance use treat- Black, Trocmé, & Chabot, 2012; Ge, Best, “agency”—work reciprocally towards the third ment, research has revealed that hope is related Conger, & Simons, 1996; Paredes, Ferreira, & component—goals. Pathway refers to mental to the deterrence of substance use (Irving, Pereira, 2014) and turn to substance use as a 22 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 83 Number 2 way to cope with these painful psychological essential to study hope in CJ populations, the use (four items; e.g., “being treated in an consequences (Auerbach, Abela, & Ho, 2007; population of which would benefit from such emergency room”), and need for public assis- Gutierres & Van Puymbroeck, 2006; Kelly, a cognitive capacity. With a jail sample, the tance (three items; e.g. “receiving any public Rollings, & Harmon, 2005; Weiss, 2004). current study intends to (1) assess hope, (2) financial support (food stamps, disability, Substance use aggravates their exposure to examine the association between hope and public assistance)”) were assessed by the life adversity and reinforces negative feelings several factors that characterize CJ popula- Texas Christian University (TCU) A-RISK of worthlessness, depression, and helpless- tions with substance use problems, and (3) form (Institute of Behavioral Research, 2008). ness (Gutierres & Van Puymbroeck, 2006; explore gender differences in the associations Lifetime victimization and violence were Weiss, 2004). between hope and these factors. assessed by the MacArthur Community Furthermore, confinement in prisons or Violence Inventory (Steadman et al., 1998). jails adds a layer of psychological risk; many Methods Participants were asked in their lifetime (1) if inmates experience panic, anxiety, depression, Participants they were victimized in eight categories (e.g., rage, hopelessness, despair, and other psycho- Data were collected from 209 adults (81 per- “has anyone thrown something at you,” “tried logical problems (American Psychological cent male) in a local jail who volunteered to to physically force to have sex against your Association, 2014; Covin, 2012). The confine- participate in the study. The demographic and will,” and “threatened you with a knife or a ment also creates a disruption in their social background information is presented in Table gun or other lethal weapon”) and (2) if they relations, which compounds the weak attach- 1. All of the participants had substance use had violent behavior in nine categories (e.g., ment with a positive social network (Western, problems before being arrested. The major- Braga, Davis, & Sirois, 2015). When social ity of the participants had a felony charge TABLE 1. support or other assistance is not available, (81 percent), the remaining being charged Demographic Characteristics and justice-involved individuals during reentry are with either misdemeanor (10 percent) or Background Information (N = 209) at high risk of reoffending and reincarceration. case pending (9 percent). The average length Thus, research is needed that examines psy- of time being held in custody was 170 days Gender (male) 81 percent chological strengths among justice-involved (range = 3 days—13 years). The average age Race (n = 199) populations that are associated improved of the first arrest was 19 (ranging from 10 to White 39 percent reentry and future crime deterrence. 49), with 48 percent of the participants having African American 47 percent juvenile records. All participants provided Gender Difference informed consent to participation. The study Others 14 percent Gender plays a role in rehabilitation because has been approved by the author’s university Education (n = 201) males and females have different treatment institutional review board. needs (Coleman, Almond, & McManus, 2018; 9 years education 24 percent Procedures Salisbury, Van Voorhis, & Spiropoulos, 2009; 10-11 years education 20 percent Skrobecki, 2014). For example, compared to Data were collected in a classroom setting 12 years or GED 35 percent male counterparts, females tend to report inside the jail with the assistance of jail offi- more than 12 years extensive traumatic and abusive histories, cials. Potential participants were recruited education 21 percent have mental health problems, use substances from a substance use treatment program in Marital status (n = 201) to cope with physical and emotional pains, groups (no more than 15 participants per and have low self-esteem and self-efficacy group). Participation was voluntary and did Single (never married) 59 percent (Carlson, Shafer, & Duffee, 2010; Salisbury et not impact the treatment or legal status in Married 17 percent al., 2009). Males have more criminal involve- any way. A correctional officer was on site to Divorced 17 percent ment and use multiple drugs (Hser, Huang, ensure safety and order; however, the correc- Teruya, & Anglin, 2003). These different char- tional officer had no involvement in research.