Hybrid Churches of Canada: A Space for Religious ‘Inculturation’? By Breena Langevin A Thesis Presented to The University of Guelph In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Art History and Visual Culture Guelph, Ontario, Canada © Breena Langevin, November, 2014 Abstract Hybrid Churches of Canada: A Space for Religious ‘Inculturation’? Breena Langevin Advisor: University of Guelph, 2014 Professor A. Boetzkes This thesis explores Christian missionary churches built or reconstructed in Canada in the 1960s and 1970s that express a fusion between Christianity and traditional Native spirituality. This fusion involves an appropriation of spiritual messages and a symbolic juxtaposition of religious imagery apparent in the architecture and visual furnishings of the church, as well as the liturgical practices of its congregation. My research focuses on three particular communities in Canada that are home to Christian parishes possessing a strong Native presence. The hybrid features of these churches can be seen as a move towards religious inculturation, which for Christianity means redefining their systems of representation and broadening their embrace. I consider each church’s individual missionary history and their approaches to evangelism and examine the churches as a site of ongoing colonial struggle. I argue that rather than resolving the problematic past of missionary history, these churches act as a space for discussion surrounding the ongoing process of working through the irreconcilable past of missionary invasion as well as the enduring confusion regarding the convoluted iconographic language expressed through their teachings. Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. David MacDonald for his helpful assistance and expertise in ethical research, Dr. Susan Douglas for her detailed annotations and constructive advice and notably, Dr. Amanda Boetzkes for her enduring support, instrumental guidance and invaluable supervision throughout the evolving process of producing this thesis. I would also like to thank the Department of Art History and Visual Culture at the University of Guelph and the College of Arts Graduate Research and Travel Awards for their financial support during my research trips to Manitoulin Island, Ontario, Winnipeg, Manitoba and Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Finally, I would like to thank all those I encountered during my journey of completing this project, who welcomed me into their communities and into their parishes, who allowed me to carry out my research, who agreed to be interviewed and who offered priceless insight into this topic. I am forever grateful to Fr. Jim Kelly, Fr. Dominique Kerbrat, Gabriel Dufault, Guy Savoie, Fr. Martin MacDougall, Lillian Marshall, Wilbert Marshall, Walter Denny, George Paul, Denise Doucette, and many others, for your pleasant hospitality, humble kindness and the amazing experiences I shared with you during my research. iii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………… i Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………. ii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………... iii Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Identity and Identification………………………………………………………………... 2 Theoretical Approach…………………………………………………………………….. 4 Case Studies……………………………………………………………………………… 5 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………... 6 Defining Culture…………………………………………………………………………. 7 Inculturation and its Discontents……………………………………………………….. 10 Papal Social Thought on Aboriginal Rights……………………………………………. 12 Chapter One: Literature Review………………………………………………………………... 14 Agency of the Art Object……………………………………………………………….. 14 Postcolonialism and the Analysis of Art………………………………………………... 20 Hybridity, Interstices, Negotiation and Ambivalence…………………………………... 25 Hybrid Art………………………………………………………………………………. 29 Native Art……………………………………………………………………………….. 35 Inculturation…………………………………………………………………………….. 39 Chapter Two: Anishnaabeg First Nations of Manitoulin Island and the Church of Immaculate Conception……………………………………………………………………………………… 44 Evaluating Inculturation at the Church of Immaculate Conception……………………. 44 The Early Jesuit Missionary Approach on Manitoulin: Dominance vs. Tolerance…….. 46 iv Wikwemikong and the Growing Faith of the Anishnaabeg People…………………….. 50 Hybrid Features of Immaculate Conception……………………………………………. 53 Immaculate Conception Entrance Doors and Other Indexes of Inculturation………….. 56 The Passion in the Pictorial Image……………………………………………………… 62 Leland and Kitty: Oppositions to Inculturation……………………………………….... 64 Hybrid Rituals: Complicating the Aims of Inculturation………………………………. 66 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Inculturation in West Bay……………………... 70 Chapter Three: Métis Spiritual Identity in Winnipeg, Manitoba and its Expression in Kateri Tekakwitha and Precious Blood Parish………………………………………………………… 73 Kateri Tekakwitha and Precious Blood Parish: Distribution versus Incorporation…….. 74 Spiritual Forms and Religious Character of the Métis………………………………….. 76 Missionary Influence: The Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate……………………….. 80 The Residential School System: Phasing Out Métis Culture………………………….... 83 The Potential Cultural Benefits of Assimilation and the New Direction of the Church…85 The Uncertainty of the Developing Métis Spiritual Identity…………………………… 88 Kateri Tekakwitha – A Reawakening of the Métis Spirit in the New Aboriginal Parish..91 Precious Blood Parish: “The Teepee Church” – Convoluted Symbolic Expressions….. 94 Failures and Successes of Inculturation at Kateri Tekakwitha and Precious Blood Parish……………………………………………………………………………………. 99 Chapter Four: Catholicism: A Tool for the Survival of Mi’kmaq Culture in Nova Scotia…… 102 Settlement in Acadia: the European model of Christianity and Civilization………….. 103 Britain vs. France: The Mi’kmaq Alliance to Catholicism……………………………. 107 Partnership with Catholic Priests: Reliance on Catholicism Throughout Encroachment…………………………………………………………………………. 111 The Nature of Mi’kmaq Spiritualism: Hybrid Traditions……………………………... 114 v Potlotek First Nations: Perseverance Against Powerful Adversaries…………………. 117 Spiritualism of Potlotek: St. Anne’s Mission and the Potlotek Chapel……………….. 119 Eskasoni First Nations: The Archetype of Inculturation?............................................... 124 Inculturation – A Two-Way Device…………………………………………………... 130 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….. 132 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………... 137 Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………. 143 vi INTRODUCTION It may seem that the role of religion in contemporary Canadian culture has become increasingly obsolete in the face of extreme globalization and demanding secularism. The presence of missionary religions in former European colonies occupy a particularly difficult position as they are confronted with the added challenge of reconciling the traumas they caused through enforced residential schools, displacement policies, and the denial of traditional cultural activity. In the twenty first century, the Christian church has initiated a paradigm of spiritual inculturation with a view to refining their missionary efforts. Throughout this thesis I use the term ‘inculturation’ to describe the efforts of one culture to communicate their religious message to another in such a way as to blend the two religious traditions without weakening or diluting the essence of either. For Christianity, this has meant a redefinition of the Christian system of representation in a manner which acknowledges and addresses contemporary issues in order to broaden their outreach. This thesis will consider the ways in which the concept of inculturation manifests in the visual, social, political and spiritual realm, through the examination of three particular communities in Canada. Within each region, I have chosen churches that express a fusion between Christianity and traditional Native spirituality. This fusion involves an appropriation of spiritual traditions and rituals and a juxtaposition of religious and symbolic imagery apparent in the architecture and furnishings of the church, as well as the liturgical practices of its congregation. The hybrid features of these parishes can be seen as a move by the Church towards religious inculturation. Elements such as architecture, art, colour, ritual, vestments, sculpture, and carving that honour both Christian and indigenous traditions are not merely a syncretism of two separate belief systems but represent the object of inculturation. By examining the churches 1 as a site of ongoing colonial struggle between two co-existing cultures, I will investigate what kind of message the church conveys to the community at large and the potential benefits and dangers inherent in that message. By exploring the convoluted iconographic language expressed through its teachings, I argue that rather than resolving the problematic nature of missionary histories, these churches act as a space in which to negotiate the irreconcilable past of colonial invasion. By considering the individual missionary history and approaches to evangelism of these three communities, I argue that changes and adaptations in missionary ideology correspond with the emergence of a new type of post-colonial attitude that embraces Native spirituality while touting it as a nationalist symbol. Identity and Identification The terms used to define the Aboriginal people of North America are essential features in the development of individual and collective identity. Early European settlers commonly