“Down the Rabbit Hole: An Exploration of Japanese Lolita Fashion” Leia Atkinson A thesis presented to the Faculty of Graduate and Post-Doctoral Studies in the Program of Anthropology with the intention of obtaining a Master’s Degree School of Sociology and Anthropology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © Leia Atkinson, Ottawa, Canada, 2015 Abstract An ethnographic work about Japanese women who wear Lolita fashion, based primarily upon anthropological field research that was conducted in Tokyo between May and August 2014. The main purpose of this study is to investigate how and why women wear Lolita fashion despite the contradictions surrounding it. An additional purpose is to provide a new perspective about Lolita fashion through using interview data. Fieldwork was conducted through participant observation, surveying, and multiple semi-structured interviews with eleven women over a three-month period. It was concluded that women wear Lolita fashion for a sense of freedom from the constraints that they encounter, such as expectations placed upon them as housewives, students or mothers. The thesis provides a historical chapter, a chapter about fantasy with ethnographic data, and a chapter about how Lolita fashion relates to other fashions as well as the Cool Japan campaign. ii Acknowledgements Throughout the carrying out of my thesis, I have received an immense amount of support, for which I am truly thankful, and without which this thesis would have been impossible. I would particularly like to thank my supervisor, Vincent Mirza, as well as my committee members Ari Gandsman and Julie LaPlante. I would also like to thank Arai Yusuke, Isaac Gagné and Alexis Truong for their support and advice during the completion of my thesis. While I cannot mention their names directly, for sake of anonymity, I am extremely thankful towards the wonderful individuals who honoured me with their time and knowledge to participate within my study. It is my hopes that my thesis acts as an accurate portrayal of the knowledge that they granted me with. Finally, I would like to thank those who offered their never-ending support throughout the entire process of my thesis, particularly my parents Beverley and Scott Atkinson. Finally, I would like to express my thankfulness towards my dear friends who at varying times offered me their support throughout my master’s degree including Takamasa Ohkawachi, Yoko Shigeta, Yarzar Tun, and Kazuki Uchino. iii A Note Concerning Names, Images, and Translations I use pseudonyms to refer to my informants, unless they requested otherwise, in the means of protecting both their anonymity and confidentiality. Even still, the names that I use to refer to brand names, companies, and places are real. Moreover, when referring to my informants I use the Japanese politeness suffix ‘san’, which works as an equivalent to the English Miss., Mr. or Mrs. When using full Japanese names, I place the order from last name to first name, as names are written in Japan. With the exception of images that have been marked otherwise, such as maps, I have taken all of the photographic images included within this thesis. Any appearing photographs that include people have been both taken, and reproduced with the permission of the individuals within them. All Japanese translations included within this thesis, unless stated otherwise, are my own. iv List of Figures Figure 1. Sachi-san wearing sweet Lolita fashion in Harajuku. Photo by Leia Atkinson and reproduced with permission of Sachi-san……………………………………....…….….xv Figure 2. Midori-san wearing gothic Lolita fashion in Shinjuku. Photo by Leia Atkinson and reproduced with permission from Midori-san……………………………….…..……...xvi Figure 3. Photo of Sachi-san and Mickey in Paris’ Disneyland. Photo reproduced with permission of Sachi-san……………………………………………………….................38 Figure 4. Photo of Kyoko-san and her mother at an independent Lolita fashion fair. Photo taken by Leia Atkinson and reproduced with permission of Kyoko-san………..……………..41 Figure 5. Ai-san and “funashi” plushy, photo taken by Ai-san and reproduced with her permission………………………………………………………………………………..47 Figure 6. Doll parts in Nakano Broadway shopping mall. Photo by Leia Atkinson………….....52 Figure 7. Shibuya ‘gyaru’ in the mid 2000s. Photo taken by Arai Yusuke and reproduced with his permission…………………………..………………………………………………..60 Figure 8. Scene in Akihabara with maid café advertisement. Photo by Leia Atkinson…….……65 Figure 9. Cosplayers wearing handmade outfits for characters (from left to right) Tieria Erde, Setsuna F. Seiei and Feldt Grace from the anime Gundam 00. Photo taken by Alexis Hieu Truong and reproduced with his permission…………………………………………......69 Figure 10. Hatsu-san wearing classical Lolita fashion. Photo by Leia Atkinson and reproduced with Hatsu-san’s permission.…………………………………………………...………..73 Figure 11. Shoppers at indie brand Lolita fair ‘Princess Dream’. Photo by Leia Atkinson……..76 v Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….….ii Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................iii A Note Concerning Names, Images, and Translations……………………….....…….iv List of Figures………………………………………………..…………………………...v Introduction……………………………………………………………………...….…viii 1. Research Problem…………………………………………………….........….x 2. Abridged Literature Review…………………………….......………...……xiii 2.1 What is Lolita fashion? A Brief Contextualization……...…….....…xiii 2.2 Cute Culture and Shōjo……………………........………..…….....…xix 2.3 Otaku, Maids, Cosplayers, Gyaru…………………………......…….xxi 3. Methodology……………………………………………………….....….….xxii 4. Locating the Field…………………………………………...………....…..xxvi 5.1 Harajuku…………………………………………………….……xxviii 5. Theoretical Overview………………………………………..…………….xxxi 6. Outline of The Thesis…………………………….…..…………...……….xxxv PART I: CONTEXTUALIZATION…………………….........................................…..…1 Chapter I: (Re)framing Girlishness……………………………………...……….…….2 1. Modern Femininity, Shōjo and the situating of Japanese Women ………..3 1.1 Meiji (1868-1912), Taisho (1912-1926) and Pre-Showa (1926-1945) Japan………………...........................................................…...………3 1.1.1 The Development of Spiritual Love, and Takarazuka Revue………………………………...…………………....5 1.1.2 Prewar Shōjo Magazines………………………………….7 1.1.3 Visual and Written Aesthetics of Prewar Shōjo Magazines............................................................................8 1.1.4 The Two-Faced Dimensionality of Shōjo………..………10 1.2 Post-War Japan, the new ideal Japanese family, and the beginnings of Japanese ‘cute’ (1945-1980s)……………………………………......13 1.2.1 The Beginnings of Japanese ‘cute’…………...………….15 1.2.2 The Continuance of Shōjo Culture………………...…….16 1.3 The Bubble Burst and tie-ins to Lolita fashion (1990-).......................19 2. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..24 PART II………………………………………………………………………………….27 vi Chapter II: Fantastical Imaginings……………………………………..……...….…..28 1. How Imagined Nostalgia and Fantastical Play Leads to Imagined Autonomy.......................................................................................................29 1.1 Nostalgia for Girlhood or a Return to Youth………………...………31 1.2 Nostalgia for a Past Never Experienced, or Longing for a Fantasy World………………………………………………………….....…..36 1.3 Autonomy from Perceived Problems within the Self…...…………...43 2. Sotsugyō or Graduation………………………………………………..…..51 3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..54 Chapter III: Lolitas vs. The World……………………………………….…….……..57 1. On Maids, Gyaru and Cosplayers……………………………..…………..58 1.1 Lolitas vs. Kogyaru/Gyaru…………………………………………...…..58 1.2 Lolitas vs. Maids……………………………………………………..…..62 1.2.1 Maids and their cafés.………………………………..…..62 1.2.2 Lolita perspectives regarding maids…………………......63 1.3 Lolitas vs. Cosplay……………………………………………...………..67 1.4 Lolitas vs. the World: Gyaru, Maids, Cosplayers…………………...…...75 2. Lolitas vs. the World: On Commodification, Indie and Brand Name Lolitas………………………………………………………………………..76 2.1 Threats to Autonomy from Societal Expectations…………………….....80 3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..82 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..……..86 Glossary of Japanese Vocabulary…………………………………………………......90 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...…..93 vii Introduction 社会への反発心が私の場合根底にあります。また、ファッションだけでは なく、精神的にも重点を置くべきだと私は思っています。 In my case, my root interest lies in a revolt against society within my heart. Lolita isn’t just a fashion; the emphasis should be to have a spirit. (Azami-san, Harajuku, July 2014) Until the 1990s, Japan was often referred to as an “economic miracle” for bringing itself from the ruins of the Second World War, to a leading economic force in the 1980s (Allison 2012:351). The miracle’s mirage quickly vanished however, as the nation plunged into financial upheaval when its economic bubble burst in 1989, bringing with it a mass of social and economic changes (Allison 2012). The primary victims of this financial downturn were Japan’s youth, who came of age within the first of a series of so- called ‘lost decades’, with an increased flexible workforce and a series of youth related moral panics (Brinton 2011:xiv; Mirza 2008; Slater 2010).1 Upon their graduation of high school or post-secondary education, many youth of the 1990s began to shift between part-time jobs, contract work and positions from temp agencies, as opposed to finding full-time employment (Kelly and White 2006). This inability to find full-time positions often directly impacted