CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 History of Railway & Level Crossing Development Rail services in Sri Lanka were commenced by Britishers in 1864 with the inauguration of the first train to Ambepussa. Thereafter Railway tracks were extended to Kandy and to the central hills mainly to transport tea and other agricultural products for export to the Port of Colombo, on which the country’s economy depended on. From the commencement of the Railways, it was managed by the Government as a service oriented organization. With the expansion of the road network the need for Level Crossings became prominent. The road network was constructed parallel with the rail line and bus halts were located very close to the railway station. In order to facilitate links the level crossings were needed to be constructed in short intervals. According to the current sources, Sri Lanka Railways has a route network of 1449 km. Total track length inclusive of double lines and crossing loops at stations is 1670 km. It has a ruling gradient of 1:44. Rails used are 80 lbs/yd, on flat country, 88 lbs/yd on the entire mainline from Colombo to Badulla. These two sections are now converted to 90A in stages to accommodate higher axle loads and speeds. Around 650 km of track length is with welded rails and altogether 530 km are laid with concrete sleepers. Average life of a rail is 30 years and that of a wooden sleeper is 04 years and that of a concrete sleeper is 35 years. Cost of a 20 m long rail is Rs. 120,000 (incl. of taxes) compared to Rs. 1000 in 1975, wooden sleeper (Eucalyptus) is Rs. 6000 and concrete sleeper is Rs. 7000 (with fastenings and taxes) compared Rs. 150 in 1975. The size of ballast is 40mm – 70mm, according to standards 10”-12” ballast cushion is required under the sleeper, which means around 2200 cubic meters of ballast per km. The cost of per km of track is around Rs.30 million without the cost of the earth formation (The figures given above were based on the statistics assessed in few years back but at present these values may be much more high). Evaluation of parameters influencing delay at level crossings. Page 4 of 62 Yet then this is much cheaper than construction of a four lane road. Considering the economic advantage of using steel sleepers instead of wooden sleepers for the up country line, the action is being taken to gradually introduce steel sleepers (Reference: Social Benefits and Technical Criteria to be reckoned for formulating future policies for the Railway by Mr. Priyal De Silva, 2008). In case of a Railway in a developing country where the per capital income is comparatively low, and of that also mainly the lower income groups are expected to be transported by train, the commuter may not be able to pay the actual cost of operation as the legitimate fare, in such an instance the government will have to pay the difference to the private operator as a subsidy. In many developed countries such as Britain private operators have failed, as they were compelled to close down uneconomical lines and level crossings due to poor return on heavy initial investments. Unlike running a bus on a road constructed and maintained by the government, a railway operator has to construct and maintain the tracks, bridges, tunnels, stations, level crossings (for the benefit of the road user), signaling and communication systems, locomotives and rolling stock and also has to operate same, which involves huge initial investments that need be recovered over a period of time. In contrast the government has always maintained the train fares lower than the bus fares. In general in countries such as Malaysia as a rule of the thumb there are only four employees per km of track, compared to 10 per km in Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka, the productivity of the labour force is very low, but could be improved if performance indices are established and they are made accountable. Their work needs be monitored closely by managers at various levels who should take the ultimate responsibility. While it is also important to taking into account the future mechanization in order to improve quality of train travel over level crossing as in case of developed countries. Also it is mentioned that railways is to be extended to the South up to Kataragama and the Coastal line to be branched off at Panadura and extended up to Horana. A proposed new rail line from Kurunegala to Habarana via Dambulla is in feasibility stage at present. Undoubtedly these are very good projects which will benefit the rural masses in those under privileged areas, not only by way of transporting their daily produce in a cost effective manner, but will also open out job opportunities for many, though not much Evaluation of parameters influencing delay at level crossings. Page 5 of 62 directly with the railways, majority will have the opportunity of having sales outlets near stations, hiring vehicles, entrepreurial investment in industrial and commercial ventures will generate employment. All in all their standards of living will be enhanced. Thus one could anticipate a rapid economic growth in these areas. However if one is to consider the present status of tracks and crossings where the trains are now being operated on, one wonders how railway will sustain the maintenance of these new lines and crossings as well. There are many ways of reducing expenditure on track and level crossing to suit conditions in Sri Lanka without blindly accepting designs what was forced upon us by International Contractors. A feasible design will not only cut down of the cost of production but also the quantum of ballast used with concrete sleepers. On Mr. Priyal De Silva’s (Former General Manager Sri Lanka Railways) recommendations a cost effective fastening system for concrete sleepers was designed by a British firm and has been tested on our tracks for the past seven years at Hunupitiya and near secretariat halt, these could be well adopted as policy decisions to reduce cost of maintenance. (Reference: Social Benefits and Technical Criteria to be reckoned for formulating future policies for the Railway by Mr. Priyal De Silva, 2008). It has to be understood that SLR require huge investments on designs, construction & maintenance of rail lines and crossings where the recovery is only part of the investment, except in countries such as Japan where the per capita income is high and the passengers could afford to pay a fare in keeping with more or less the actual expenditure incurred. 2.2 Railway Crossings & Design Standards The term level crossing (also called a railroad crossing, road through railroad, train crossing or grade crossing) is a crossing on one level (at-grade intersection) without recourse to a bridge or tunnel of a railway line by a road or path. It also applies when a light rail line with separate right-of-way (or a reserved track tramway) crosses a road. Early level crossings had a flagman in a nearby booth who would, on the approach of a train, wave a red flag or lantern to stop all traffic and clear the tracks. Manual or electrical closable gates that barricaded the roadway were later introduced. The gates were intended to be a complete barrier against intrusion of any road traffic onto the railway. In the early days of the railways much road traffic was horse drawn or included livestock. It was thus necessary to provide a real barrier. Thus, crossing gates, when closed to road traffic, Evaluation of parameters influencing delay at level crossings. Page 6 of 62 crossed the entire width of the road. When opened to allow road users to cross the line, the gates were swung across the width of the railway, preventing any pedestrians or animals getting onto the line. With the appearance of motor vehicles, this barrier became less effective and the need for a barrier to livestock diminished dramatically. Many countries therefore substituted the gated crossings with weaker but more highly visible barriers and relied upon road users following the associated warning signals to stop. In many countries, level crossings on less important roads and railway lines are often open or uncontrolled, sometimes with warning lights or bells to warn of approaching trains. Ungated crossings represent a safety concern; many accidents have occurred due to failure to notice or obey the warning. In some countries, instead of an open crossing there may be manually operated gates, which the motorist must open and close. These too have significant delay and risks, as they are unsafe to use without possessing knowledge of the train timetable: motorists may be instructed to telephone the railway signaller, but may not always do so. The director of rail safety at the UK HM Railway Inspectorate commented in 2004 that "the use of level crossings contributes the greatest potential for catastrophic risk on the railways." Eighteen people were killed in the UK on level crossings in 2003-4. Bridges and tunnels are now favored, but this can be impractical in flat countryside where there is insufficient space to build a roadway embankment or tunnel (because of nearby buildings). (Level Crossing- Wikimedia- the crossings in UK) At railway stations, a pedestrian level crossing is sometimes provided to allow passengers to reach other platforms in the absence of an underpass or bridge. Where third rail systems have level crossings, there is a gap in the third rail over the level crossing, but the power supply is not interrupted since trains have current collectors on multiple cars.