SECURITISING ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: THE CASE OF CLIMATE MIGRATION A CASE STUDY ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE NETHERLANDS Anniek Barnhoorn 960604035040 August 2019 MSc Thesis Environmental Policy Group Wageningen University This page was intentionally left blank. Executive Summary Environmental challenges like climate migration are growing exponentially and threaten- ing human, national, and international security. While environmental security has increasingly carved its niche in International Relations and gained momentum practice, environmental se- curity remains a contentious domain with diverging definitions and interpretations. This thesis sheds light on these contentious debates through answering the question: how and in what way have environmental challenges and climate migration been securitised (perceived as an exist- ential threat to security) on multiple levels, if at all, and what are the implications for policy directions? This will be conveyed through drawing from the theoretical debates concerning en- vironmental securitisation in International Relations to formulate a conceptual lens. Thereafter, the conceptual lens will be applied to the cases of the European Union and the Netherlands. The data collected will consist of qualitative primary data and will be analysed through a qualitative Critical Discourse Analysis. Subsequently, the theoretical and practical contributions will be combined to rethink environmental securitisation in theory and practice. This thesis concludes that environmental challenges as a whole and the specific challenge of climate migration are increasingly perceived in terms of security through securitisation moves and securitisation acts. Securitisation moves illustrated by political discourse have perceived environmental challenges and climate migration as a threat to human, national, and collective security. Securitisation acts illustrated by public policy documentation have largely politicised (perceived as a concern in public policy) and scarcely securitised environmental challenges and climate migration. The securitisation moves and securitisation acts primarily advocate for policy relating to environmental security to be tackled through development by focusing on resilience, and through diplomacy by focusing on multilateralism. Rethinking environmental securitisation has shown that theory lags behind on practice and that practice does not always follow the trends portrayed by theory. As a result, this thesis suggests an improved theoretical framework to be considered for future research. In order to move towards governing the environmental challenges of the 21st century, this thesis recommends to carve a greater niche of environmental securitisa- tion in both theory and practice while placing emphasis on the implications of environmental securitisation for policy directions on multiple levels. Key terms: Environmental challenges, climate migration, securitisation, policy directions, International Relations, Critical Discourse Analysis, European Union, the Netherlands i Acknowledgements This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master in International Development Studies with a specialisation in Politics and Governance of Development and a special track in Sustainable Development Diplomacy at Wageningen University. During my Master, I had the opportunity to delve into a variety of topics imperative to governing challenges of the 21st century. This thesis has allowed me to further explore topics of great personal interests like the nexus between climate change and security which will be further pursued after submitting this thesis through an internship. First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Aarti Gupta, for her time, patience, and valuable advice and feedback. Second, I would like to express my appreciation to the experts consulted for their critical, practical, and valuable insights. Finally, I am grateful to my family and friends for their continuous support and encouragement during this process. Thank you all and I hope you enjoy reading my thesis. ii Contents List of Tables v List of Figures v List of Acronyms vi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem Statement . .1 1.2 Research Questions . .3 1.2.1 Central Research Question . .3 1.2.2 Sub Research Questions . .3 1.3 Roadmap . .4 2 Conceptual Lens: Environmental Securitisation in International Relations 5 2.1 Defining Security . .5 2.2 Defining Environmental Security . .7 2.3 Interpreting Securitisation . .9 2.4 Interpreting Environmental Securitisation . 11 2.5 Analysing Environmental Securitisation . 14 2.6 Conceptual Lens . 15 3 Methodology 20 3.1 Case Selection . 20 3.2 Data Collection . 20 3.2.1 Political Discourse . 20 3.2.2 Public Policy Documentation . 21 3.2.3 Semi-Structured Interviews . 21 3.2.4 Participant Observation . 21 3.2.5 Sources Of Data . 21 3.3 Data Analysis . 22 3.3.1 Analysing Discourse . 22 3.3.2 Critical Discourse Analysis . 23 3.3.3 Coding . 23 iii 4 Securitising Environmental Challenges 25 4.1 Securitising Environmental Challenges in the European Union . 25 4.2 Securitising Environmental Challenges in the Netherlands . 39 5 Securitising Climate Migration 48 5.1 Securitising Climate Migration in the European Union . 48 5.2 Securitising Climate Migration in the Netherlands . 59 6 Rethinking Environmental Securitisation in Theory and Practice 71 6.1 Defining Security . 71 6.2 Interpreting Securitisation . 72 6.3 Analysing Securitisation . 74 6.4 Utility of the Conceptual Lens . 75 7 Conclusion 78 7.1 Findings . 78 7.2 Contributions . 79 7.3 Future Research . 79 References 80 Appendix 92 A List of Participant Observations . 92 B Transcripts Critical Discourse Analysis Coding . 92 iv List of Tables 1 Perspectives of IR theories on security . .7 2 Perspectives of IR theories on environmental security . .8 3 Perspectives of schools of CSS on securitisation . 11 4 Perspectives of schools of CSS on environmental securitisation . 13 5 How to identify a securitisation move . 14 6 How to identify a securitisation act . 14 7 Operationalisation of analysing the conceptual lens . 18 8 Methodological operationalisation of analysing the conceptual lens . 24 9 Rethinking the operationalisation of analysing the conceptual lens . 76 10 CDA of securitising environmental challenges in the EU . 93 11 CDA of securitising environmental challenges in the Netherlands . 94 12 CDA of securitising climate migration in the EU . 95 13 CDA of securitising climate migration in the Netherlands . 96 List of Figures 1 Operationalisation of the conceptual lens . 18 2 Methodological operationalisation of the conceptual lens . 22 3 Timeline of securitising environmental challenges in the EU . 26 4 Timeline of securitising environmental challenges in the Netherlands . 39 5 Timeline of securitising climate migration in the EU . 48 6 Timeline of securitising climate migration in the Netherlands . 59 7 Rethinking the operationalisation of the conceptual lens . 76 v List of Acronyms 3D Defence Development Diplomacy COP Conference of Parties CSS Critical Security Studies EU European Union G7 Group of 7 GA General Assembly GEP Global Environmental Politics IOM International Organisation for Migration IR International Relations MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs PSC Planetary Security Conference PSI Planetary Security Initiative SC Security Council SDG Sustainable Development Goal SIDS Small Island Developing States UN United Nations vi 1 Introduction This thesis will examine how and in what way environmental challenges as a whole, and the specific environmental challenge of climate migration, are securitised (perceived as an existential threat to security) on multiple levels, if at all, and what the implications are for policy directions. With environmental challenges like climate migration growing exponentially and presenting a threat to complex questions of security, the nexus between environment and security is becoming increasingly incorporated in theory and practice (Huntjens & Nachbar, 2015). In both theory and practice, the novel and complex domain of environmental securitisation is contested (Oels, 2012). In theory, International Relations (IR) scholars are challenging ecological problems through the discipline of Global Environmental Politics (GEP) and are challenging traditional notions of security through the discipline of Critical Security Studies (CSS) (Peoples & Vaughan-Williams, 2015). In practice, while environmental security is developing across international, regional, and national politics, a clear divergence persists between the discourse and implementation at the policy level, elements that are key for governing environmental challenges of the 21st century (Brzoska, 2012). Therefore, this thesis aims to further examine these contentions while building on the theoretical and practical application of environmental securitisation through examining the securitisation of environmental challenges and climate migration and the implications for policy directions. This will be conveyed through applying a case study methodology examining the European Union and the Netherlands that will draw from qualitative primary data and be analysed through a qualitative Critical Discourse Analysis. The remainder of this chapter will present the problem statement, research questions, and roadmap to this thesis. 1.1 Problem Statement With climate change and its effects \inextricably linked to complex questions of security", climate change is increasingly articulated as a driver of the greatest