INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE ROLE OF OREXIN (HYPOCRETIN) AND DYNORPHIN IN DRUG SEEKING, REINFORCEMENT, AND WITHDRAWAL ________________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Submitted to Temple University Graduate Board In partial fulfillment of the Requirement of the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSPHY By Taylor A. Gentile May 2018 Examining Committee Members: John W Muschamp, PhD, Center for Substance Abuse Research, Advisory Chair, Department of Pharmacology Sara Jane Ward, PhD, Center for Substance Abuse Research, Dept. of Pharmacology Ronald Tuma, PhD, Center for Substance Abuse Research, G.H. Stewart Professor, Physiology Scott M. Rawls, PhD, Center for Substance Abuse Research, Dept. of Pharmacology Shin Kang, PhD, Shriners Hospital Pediatric Research Center, Dept. of Anatomy & Cell Biology Lee Yuan Liu-Chen, PhD, Center for Substance Abuse Research, Dept. of Pharmacology Rodrigo España, PhD, Drexel University College of Medicine, Dept. of Neurobiology & Anatomy i © Copyright 2017 by Taylor A. Gentile All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Psychostimulant dependence remains a major health and economic problem, leading to premature death and costing $181 billion annually in health care, crime, and lost productivity costs. Currently, no pharmacotherapies are available to effectively treat psychostimulant dependence. Psychostimulants cause changes in neural circuits involved in reward and affect, but addiction neurocircuitry is incompletely understood and new targets for therapeutic intervention are needed. Lateral hypothalamic orexins (hypocretins) have been shown to have functional roles in arousal, reward processing, attention, motivation, and impulsivity. The opioid peptide dynorphin, co-localized with orexin, has critical roles in producing negative affective emotion states through interactions with, among others, stress circuitry. Orexin-dynorphin neurons project to neural substrates governing positive and negative motivated behavior, including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), amygdala, locus coeruleus and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Orexin and dynorphin modulate post-synaptic membrane activity through opposing signaling mechanisms; while orexins bind to predominantly excitatory orexin-1 and -2 G-protein coupled receptors, dynorphins bind to predominantly inhibitory G-protein coupled kappa opioid receptors (KORs). Multiple psychopathologies, including anxiety and substance abuse disorders, are characterized in part by alterations in orexin-dynorphin signaling. While these peptides have been shown to co-localize within single presynaptic vesicles and exert opposing effects on post-synaptic membrane potentials, the utility of producing oppositely-behaving peptides and the implications on psychopathologies remains unknown. The present studies were conducted to explore the role of orexin and dynorphin activity in cocaine’s rewarding effects as well as the negative effects of withdrawal. iii To accomplish this, we measured 1. Effects of orexin and cocaine administration on impulsive behaviors that increase the likelihood of psychostimulant addiction, using 5- choice serial reaction time task in concert with systemic and site directed pharmacology. 2. Effects of orexin and dynorphin on motivation for cocaine administration and intracranial self-stimulation. Using immunohistochemistry, ultrasonic vocalizations, and fast scan cyclic voltammetry we explored possible dopaminergic mechanisms of orexin and dynorphin contributions to reward. Lastly 3. Effects of orexin, dynorphin and chronic cocaine on withdrawal-induced anhedonia using intracranial self-stimulation, elevated plus maze, and correlations with immunohistochemistry and plasma corticosterone levels to explore further mechanisms. The results of this dissertation support our hypothesis that orexin receptor activity contributes to cocaine-induced impulsivity, motivation to self-administer cocaine and the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants. Dynorphin activity contributes to anhedonia and anxiety seen during drug abstinence after chronic exposure. Orexin and dynorphin exert these effects, in part, by modulating activity of dopaminergic neurons projecting from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens. iv ACKNOWLEGEMENTS We all stand on the shoulders of giants. I have been blessed since an early age to have family, friends and teachers to support me and help me grow as a scientist and as a person. Without the direction of the extraordinary people around me I would not be where I am today. I would like to thank the many members of CSAR, specifically my committee members who provided such guidance and ideas. My mentor and friend, Dr. John Muschamp who has been a fearless leader and a measure to which I aspire. I’d like to express my gratitude to Sara Ward, Ron Tuma, Scott Rawls, Rodrigo España and Shin Kang all of which I have shared early morning conversations or late night coffees that has helped me become better both inside and outside of the lab. Also thanks to the faculty members Lynn Kirby, Ellen Unterwald, Servio Ramirez, Mary Abood and Li-Yuan Lu Chen who have helped with advice and support through the good times and the trying ones. I would like to express my great gratitude towards the colleges and coworkers around me that I work with on a daily basis. My Fellow graduate students and CSAR members who showed me so much kindness and direction when I needed it. My thanks to the many students Stacia Lewandowski, Mia Watson, Sean Vora, Lili Mo, Fionya Tran and Matt Olsh who contributed so much and were always there to keep me on my toes. Lastly, I would like to thank my partner in crime, Steve Simmons, who much of our work would be impossible without. The friendship, laughs and discussions with these people made every day more productive and enjoyable. It is working with them that I will surely miss the most. v Lastly, I would like to thank all of my friends and family, the Red Barons that have stuck beside me for everything we have been through for the last 15 years. To my better half Alison, who has always pushed me and shown me not just how to be a better scientist but also a better person. Most importantly to my brilliant sister, Gena, and my impressive brother, Zach. I have had many parents in the Kendras and the Colketts but a special thank you to the mom that calls me “T” and the dad that calls me “bub”. If I can be half as successful as you make me feel then it is all worth it. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ v LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ ix LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................ xii INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................... 1 MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHOSTIMULANT ADDICTION .......................... 1 Role of Basal Ganglia in Motivated Behavior ......................................................................... 1 Habit learning vs action selection ............................................................................................ 4 Role of Midbrain Dopamine in Motivated Behavior and Drug Abuse .................................... 7 Cocaine: Neuropharmacology and behavioral effects ........................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................. 14 THE LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS AND OREXIN-PRODUCING NEURONS .......... 14 Orexin and Dynorphin peptide and receptors ........................................................................ 14 Discovery of Orexin and Dynorphin Peptides ....................................................................... 15 Anatomy, and Projections ...................................................................................................... 17 Physiologic effect of Orexin and Dynorphin in Other Projections ........................................ 24 CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................. 34 ROLE OREXIN AND DYNORPHIN IN DRUG REWARD AND WITHDRAWAL ....... 34 Orexin and Dynorphin in Drug Abuse ................................................................................... 35 Suvorexant and LY2456302 as Pharmacologic Tools ........................................................... 47 SPECIFIC AIMS ................................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................. 51 OREXIN ROLE IN DRUG-INDUCED IMPULSIVITY ..................................................... 51 Introduction to Orexin contributions to impulsive