LEISURE EXPERIENCES IN NORDIC WALKING AND RAMBLING, AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO MENTAL WELL-BEING: A MIXED-METHODS STUDY Marta Anna Zurawik A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Bolton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2017 University of Bolton TABLE OF CONTENT Abstract ...................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... vii List of tables ......................................................................................................................... ix List of figures ..................................................................................................................... xiv List of pictures ................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1. Introduction to the study .................................................................................1 1.1. Walking for leisure – spectrum of recreational options ................................................7 1.2. A role of place in leisure walking and benefits for well-being .....................................10 1.3. Nordic walking as a new form of leisure walking ........................................................20 1.4. Conceptual framework of the study ..............................................................................26 1.5. Purpose of the study ......................................................................................................37 1.6. Significance of the study ...............................................................................................39 1.7. Thesis outline ...............................................................................................................40 Chapter 2. Part 1. History of walking for leisure: rambling and Nordic walking .......42 2.1. History of leisure walking and rambling ......................................................................42 2.2. History of Nordic walking ............................................................................................49 2.2.1. Nordic walking in the United Kingdom ....................................................................57 Part 2. Leisure and well-being ..........................................................................................64 2.3. Theories of well-being ................................................................................................64 2.3.1. Subjective well-being ................................................................................................64 2.3.2. Psychological well-being ...........................................................................................67 2.4. Concepts of leisure ........................................................................................................74 2.4.1. Leisure identity ..........................................................................................................81 2.4.2. Serious leisure perspective .........................................................................................90 2.5. Relationships between leisure and well-being ..............................................................94 2.6. Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................105 Chapter 3. Methodology ...................................................................................................106 3.1. Research paradigm ....................................................................................................106 3.1.1. Mixed-method approach to writing .......................................................................108 3.2. Research study questions and objectives ...................................................................110 i 3.3. Research design of the study ..................................................................................... 112 3.4. Sampling process and participants ............................................................................ 120 3.5. Evaluation of mixed-method research ...................................................................... 122 3.5.1. Reliability and validity .......................................................................................... 123 3.5.2. Trustworthiness and authenticity ............................................................................. 124 3.5.3. The weakness of mixed-methods research study ..................................................... 126 3.6. Ethics ......................................................................................................................... 128 3.7. Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 129 Chapter 4. Pilot studies.................................................................................................... 130 4.1. Pilot close-ended questionnaires ................................................................................. 130 4.1.1. Participants and procedures ..................................................................................... 131 4.1.2. Pilot study results and recommendations ................................................................ 132 4.2. Pilot open-ended questionnaires ................................................................................. 134 4.2.1. Participants and procedures ..................................................................................... 135 4.2.2. Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 136 4.2.3. Pilot study findings .................................................................................................. 138 4.2.4. Discussion ................................................................................................................ 147 4.2.5. Pilot study limitations and recommendations .......................................................... 149 4.3. Chapter summary ........................................................................................................ 151 Chapter 5. Quantitative and qualitative investigations into Nordic walking and mental well-being ............................................................................................................ 152 5.1. Quantitative study into Nordic walking ..................................................................... 152 5.1.1 Design of the questionnaire ..................................................................................... 153 5.1.1.1. Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS) .............................. 155 5.1.2. Procedures of data collection ................................................................................... 158 5.1.2.1. Internet-based method of data collection .............................................................. 159 5.1.3. Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 161 5.1.4. Results ...................................................................................................................... 163 5.1.5. Discussion ................................................................................................................ 184 5.2. Qualitative study into Nordic walking ....................................................................... 187 5.2.1. Design of interviewing process ................................................................................ 187 5.2.2. The role of the researcher ........................................................................................ 188 ii 5.2.3. Procedures of data collection ....................................................................................189 5.2.4. Data analysis .............................................................................................................190 5.2.5. Findings ....................................................................................................................193 5.2.6. Discussion .................................................................................................................201 5.3. Integration of the findings ............................................................................................203 5.4. General discussion .......................................................................................................206 Chapter 6. Quantitative and qualitative investigations into rambling and mental well-being .......................................................................................................208 6.1. Quantitative study into rambling .................................................................................208 6.1.1. WHO-5 Well-being index .........................................................................................210 6.1.2. Procedures of data collection ....................................................................................211 6.1.3. Data analysis .............................................................................................................212 6.1.4. Results .......................................................................................................................213