TOPIC T3: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AUTUMN 2013 Objectives (1) Be able to determine the dimensions of physical quantities in terms of fundamental dimensions. (2) Understand the Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity and its use in checking equations and reducing physical problems. (3) Be able to carry out a formal dimensional analysis using Buckingham’s Pi Theorem. (4) Understand the requirements of physical modelling and its limitations. 1. What is dimensional analysis? 2. Dimensions 2.1 Dimensions and units 2.2 Primary dimensions 2.3 Dimensions of derived quantities 2.4 Working out dimensions 2.5 Alternative choices for primary dimensions 3. Formal procedure for dimensional analysis 3.1 Dimensional homogeneity 3.2 Buckingham’s Pi theorem 3.3 Applications 4. Physical modelling 4.1 Method 4.2 Incomplete similarity (“scale effects”) 4.3 Froude-number scaling 5. Non-dimensional groups in fluid mechanics References White (2011) – Chapter 5 Hamill (2011) – Chapter 10 Chadwick and Morfett (2013) – Chapter 11 Massey (2011) – Chapter 5 Hydraulics 2 T3-1 David Apsley 1. WHAT IS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS? Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables. It is particularly useful for: presenting and interpreting experimental data; attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution; checking equations; establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena; physical modelling. Example. The drag force F per unit length on a long smooth cylinder is a function of air speed U, density ρ, diameter D and viscosity μ. However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs portraying its variation with all combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis tells us that the problem can be reduced to a single dimensionless relationship cD f (Re) where cD is the drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number. In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to 2 and the experimental data to a single graph of cD against Re. 2. DIMENSIONS 2.1 Dimensions and Units A dimension is the type of physical quantity. A unit is a means of assigning a numerical value to that quantity. SI units are preferred in scientific work. 2.2 Primary Dimensions In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units are: mass M (kilogram, kg) length L (metre, m) time T (second, s) temperature Θ (kelvin, K) In other areas of physics additional dimensions may be necessary. The complete set specified by the SI system consists of the above plus electric current I (ampere, A) luminous intensity C (candela, cd) amount of substance n (mole, mol) Hydraulics 2 T3-2 David Apsley 2.3 Dimensions of Derived Quantities Dimensions of common derived mechanical quantities are given in the following table. Quantity Common Symbol(s) Dimensions Area A L2 Geometry Volume V L3 Second moment of area I L4 Velocity U LT–1 Acceleration a LT–2 Angle θ 1 (i.e. dimensionless) Kinematics Angular velocity ω T–1 Quantity of flow Q L3T–1 Mass flow rate m MT–1 Force F MLT–2 Moment, torque T ML2T–2 Dynamics Energy, work, heat E, W ML2T–2 Power P ML2T–3 Pressure, stress p, τ ML–1T–2 Density ρ ML–3 Viscosity μ ML–1T–1 Kinematic viscosity ν L2T–1 Fluid properties Surface tension σ MT–2 Thermal conductivity k MLT–3Θ–1 2 –2 –1 Specific heat cp, cv L T Θ Bulk modulus K ML–1T–2 2.4 Working Out Dimensions In the following, [ ] means “dimensions of”. Example. dU Use the definition τ μ to determine the dimensions of viscosity. dy Solution. From the definition, τ force / area μ dU/dy velocity / length Hence, MLT2 /L2 [μ] ML1T 1 LT 1/L Alternatively, dimensions may be deduced indirectly from any known formula involving that quantity. Hydraulics 2 T3-3 David Apsley Example. ρUL Since Re is known to be dimensionless, the dimensions of μ must be the same as μ those of ρUL; i.e. [μ] [ρUL] (ML3 )(LT 1 )(L) ML1T1 2.5 Alternative Choices For Primary Dimensions The choice of primary dimensions is not unique. It is not uncommon – and it may sometimes be more convenient – to choose force F as a primary dimension rather than mass, and have a {FLT} system rather than {MLT}. Example. Find the dimensions of viscosity μ in the {FLT} rather than {MLT} systems. Answer: [μ] = FL–2T Hydraulics 2 T3-4 David Apsley 3. FORMAL PROCEDURE FOR DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Dimensional Homogeneity The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity All additive terms in a physical equation must have the same dimensions. Examples: 1 2 s ut 2 at – all terms have the dimensions of length (L) p V 2 z H – all terms have the dimensions of length (L) ρg 2g Dimensional homogeneity is a useful tool for checking formulae. For this reason it is useful when analysing a physical problem to retain algebraic symbols for as long as possible, only substituting numbers right at the end. However, dimensional analysis cannot determine numerical factors; e.g. it cannot distinguish between ½at2 and at2 in the first formula above. Dimensional homogeneity is the basis of the formal dimensional analysis that follows. 3.2 Buckingham’s Pi Theorem Experienced practitioners can do dimensional analysis by inspection. However, the formal tool which they are unconsciously using is Buckingham’s Pi Theorem1: Buckingham’s Pi Theorem (1) If a problem involves n relevant variables m independent dimensions then it can be reduced to a relationship between n – m non-dimensional parameters Π1, ..., Πn-m. (2) To construct these non-dimensional Π groups: (i) Choose m dimensionally-distinct scaling variables (aka repeating variables). (ii) For each of the n – m remaining variables construct a non-dimensional Π of the form a b c Π (variable)(scale1 ) (scale2 ) (scale3 ) where a, b, c, ... are chosen so as to make each Π non-dimensional. Note. In order to ensure dimensional independence in {MLT} systems it is common – but not obligatory – to choose the scaling variables as: a purely geometric quantity (e.g. a length), a kinematic (time- but not mass-containing) quantity (e.g. velocity or acceleration) and a dynamic (mass- or force-containing) quantity (e.g. density). 1 Buckingham, E., 1914. The use of Π comes from its use as the mathematical symbol for a product. Hydraulics 2 T3-5 David Apsley 3.3 Applications Example. Obtain an expression in non-dimensional form for the pressure gradient in a horizontal pipe of circular cross-section. Show how this relates to the familiar expression for frictional head loss. Step 1. Identify the relevant variables. dp/dx, ρ, V, D, ks, μ Step 2. Write down dimensions. dp [ force / area] MLT2 L2 ML2T 2 dx length L –3 ρ ML –1 V LT D L ks L μ ML–1T–1 Step 3. Establish the number of independent dimensions and non-dimensional groups. Number of relevant variables: n = 6 Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T) Number of non-dimensional groups (Πs): n – m = 3 Step 4. Choose m (= 3) dimensionally-independent scaling variables. e.g. geometric (D), kinematic/time-dependent (V), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ). Step 5. Create the Πs by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables: dp/dx, ks and μ. dp Π D aV bρc 1 dx Considering the dimensions of both sides: M0L0T0 (ML2T 2 )(L)a (LT 1 )b (ML3 )c M1c L2ab3cT 2b Equate powers of primary dimensions. Since M only appears in [ρ] and T only appears in [V] it is sensible to deal with these first. M: 0 = 1 + c c = –1 T: 0 = –2 – b b = –2 L: 0 = –2 + a + b –3c a = 2 – b + 3c = 1 Hence, dp D dp Π DV 2ρ1 dx (Check: OK – ratio of two pressures) 1 dx ρV 2 ks Π (by inspection, since ks is a length) 2 D Hydraulics 2 T3-6 David Apsley a b c Π3 μD V ρ In terms of dimensions: M0L0T0 (ML1T 1 )(L)a (LT 1 )b (ML3 )c M1c L1ab3cT 1b Equating exponents: M: 0 = 1 + c c = –1 T: 0 = –1 – b b = –1 L: 0 = –1 + a + b –3c a = 1 – b + 3c = –1 Hence, μ Π (Check: OK – this is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number) 3 ρVD Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional relationship. Π1 f (Π2 ,Π3 ) or dp D k μ dx f ( s , ) (*) ρV 2 D ρVD Step 7. Rearrange (if required) for convenience. We are free to replace any of the Πs by a power of that Π, or by a product with the other Πs, provided we retain the same number of independent dimensionless groups. In this case we recognise that Π3 is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number, so it looks 1 better to use Π3 (Π3 ) Re as the third non-dimensional group. We can also write dp h the pressure gradient in terms of head loss: ρg f . With these two modifications dx L the non-dimensional relationship (*) then becomes gh D k f f ( s ,Re) LV 2 D or L V 2 k h f ( s ,Re) f D g D Since numerical factors can be absorbed into the non-specified function, this can easily be identified with the Darcy-Weisbach equation L V 2 h λ f D 2g where λ is a function of relative roughness ks/D and Reynolds number Re, a function given (Topic 2) by the Colebrook-White equation. Hydraulics 2 T3-7 David Apsley Example. The drag force on a body in a fluid flow is a function of the body size (expressed via a characteristic length L) and the fluid velocity V, density ρ and viscosity μ.