LEARNING IN THE COMPANY OF WOMEN: THE INTERSECTION OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION IN THE EDUCATIONAL AND CAREER EXPERIENCE OF IMMIGRANT PROFESSIONAL SUDANESE MUSLIM WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Awatif M. Elnour, M.A. Graduate Program in Education The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Professor Antoinette Errante, Advisor Professor Amy Shuman Professor Ousman Kobo Copyrighted by Awatif Mahmoud Elnour 2012 Abstract Africans continue to immigrate to the United States voluntarily or involuntarily (Arthur, 2000; Stewart, 1993). Although much has been written about immigrants in the U.S., little literature is available on black immigrants (Rong & Brown, 2002; Arthur, 2000; Dodoo, 1997), and much less on Muslim immigrants from black Africa. Moreover, and despite the recent increase in Sudanese women’s immigration to the U.S. due to the conflicts in the South Sudan, Darfur and the government’s gendered policies and oppression of women (Abdel-Halim, 2006; Abusharaf, 2002; Hale, 1997), there are virtually no studies that examine their experiences and the role that their race, gender, and religion play in their everyday lives. Therefore, this study aspires to add to the scant research in this area and contribute to the visibility of these women. The purpose of this study is to explore the intersection of race, gender, and religion in the educational and career experiences of immigrant professional Sudanese Muslim women in the United States. The study tried to answer the following questions: How do immigrant professional Sudanese Muslim women residing in the U.S. perceive their educational and career experiences in America? How do immigrant professional Sudanese Muslim women perceive the impact of their race, gender, and religion on their experiences as they carve their own space within their respective professions? What are ii the significant issues embraced by these women as they struggle to negotiate a place within American educational institutions and their professions? The study is informed by Black feminist epistemology as a theoretical framework, and narrative inquiry as a method within qualitative research for data collection and analysis. Individual interviews, researcher’s journals, and field notes were used to collect the narratives of five educated Sudanese Muslim women who live and work in the U.S. The analysis of the data revealed several findings. First, the participants reported several encounters of discrimination and prejudice due to their race, gender, religion, accented English and immigrant status. Second, despite the fact that both racism and sexism perpetuate black women’s oppression in the U.S. (Collins, 2000; 1998; hooks, 1990; Crenshaw, 1997), most of the participants did not feel gender discrimination. Third, all of the participants have experienced religion discrimination, although it was harsher for those who wear the Islamic dress. They also reported that the incident of September, 11/2001 terrorist attack have heightened the enmity against Muslims. The women’s narratives revealed that racism, sexism, accent, and religion did intersect in their experiences, at different levels, which negatively affected them during their educational pursue as well as in the workplaces. However, the participants’ stories reflected their resiliency and determination which helped them to defy discriminatory acts, stay positive, and achieve success academically and professionally. Further, implications for educational institutions and workplaces were discussed, along with recommendations for future research. iii Dedicated to the spirit of my late mother Zainab Modawi iv Acknowledgements First and foremost my gratitude and thanks go to God who gave me the strength and the vigor to reach this point. It is only by His grace and family and friends’ prayers and support that I was able to complete this difficult journey. Indeed, the completion of this degree required the support of many people. I was fortunate to have a circle of wonderful family, and friends who supported me and contributed significantly to this endeavor. Exceptional thanks go to my dear husband and friend Abdelwahid Warrag who believed in me even when I doubted myself. Thanks for your kindness, encouragement, patience and support that sustained me through the challenges of writing this dissertation. You really deserve an honorary degree for your countless contributions to this project. I am also grateful to the kindness, support, and the prayers of my sisters, Nimat and Salwa, and my brothers, Ahmed and Hussan, and my father Mahmoud Elnour who I also thank for his devotion that we all reach the highest levels of education. I would like to thank my committee members, Dr Antoinette Errante, Dr. Amy Shuman, and Dr. Ousman Kobo for their guidance, intellectual advice, patience, and invaluable support and inputs in this study. Special thanks go to my advisor Dr. Errante. I know I can’t thank you enough. Truly, your intellectual knowledge, mentoring, your willingness to support me, and your friendship have been priceless. I am as well grateful v to Dr. Shuman for introducing me to the narrative genre. I knew that I am going to use narrative methods the first time I attended your Narrative workshop. I am also thankful to Dr. Kobo for allowing me to benefit from his expertise in Islamic history and for his friendship. My thanks also go to Dr. Antoinette Miranda for serving in my candidacy exam committee. I appreciate your scholarly advice, and the discussions we had about my research topic. I am so grateful to have known you all as scholars and as role models during the course of this degree. My sincere gratitude go to my inner circle of friends and colleagues who contributed through the different stages that brought me to this end; Chinwe Okpalaoka, Di Cao, Germain Badang, Hashim Salih, Khadar Bashir-Ali, Mohamed Abdelrahman, Seleshi Asfaw, Valentine Mukuria , and Yvette Pierre. Yvette I am so indebted to you for your feedback, editing, encouragement, and for walking with me to the finish line. I am so fortunate to have you all in my life and I will forever cherish our friendship. As well I extend my thanks to Deborah Zabloudil, Nadine Denton, and my friends and family members who believed in me and kept asking about the progress of my research. Finally, my endless appreciation and thanks go to the five wonderful women who shared their life stories with me. Without you this study would not have been possible. I am privileged to have been able to make your experiences, your resilience, agency, and achievements available to the reader. I am truly blessed to meet and learn from all of you through this study. I wished that I could thank each of you by name but I am restricted by the requirements of anonymity. vi Vita 1984-1990 Sudan Renewable Energy Project, Sudan Energy Institute 1990-1997 Assistant Researcher, National Center for Research, The Sudan 1992 M A Communication, Leicester University, U.K. 1993 M A Translation, University of Khartoum, The Sudan 2003 M A Education, The Ohio State University 1998-2005 Huntington National Bank 2006-2009 Graduate Teaching Assistant/ Arabic Language Instructor, The Ohio State University 2011-2012 Ethiopian Tewahedo Social Services Publications Elnour, A. & Bashir-Ali, K. (2003). Teaching Muslim girls in American Schools. Journal of Social Education, Vol. 67, Issue 1. Fields of Study Major Field: Education vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iv Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………….......v Vita……………………………………………………………………………………....vii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….….1 Purpose of the study…………………………………………………………...4 Statement of the problem…………………………………...…………………5 Research questions…………………………………………………………….7 Background of the study………………………………………………………8 Significance of the study…………………………………………………….11 Limitations of the study………………………………………...……………12 Definition of terms…………………………………………………………...13 Overview of the chapters………………………………………………...…..15 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE………………………………………16 An overview of the history of Immigration in the U. S……………………16 A brief History of African immigration to the U. S………..……………..20 East African immigration…………………………………………...22 viii A brief History of Muslims immigration…………..………….…….23 Sudanese Muslim women immigration…………….……………………...27 Muslim immigrants’ acculturation: Sudanese women as an example……..30 Finding a safe heaven: Network of faith…………………………………...35 Sudanese Muslim women’s Education and position………………………38 Sudanese women’s education………..…………………………………….40 Sudanese women’s gender position………………………………………..46 Intersectionality……………………………………………………………55 Intersectionality at work: Racism, sexism and religion discrimination……………………………………………………...58 Immigrant Sudanese Muslim women now…..…………………….63 Summary…………………………………………………………………..69 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………...72 Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………….73 Rationale for Qualitative Inquiry…………………………………………..80 Narrative Research…………………………………………………………81 My narrative Tale…………………………………………………………..86 Research Site……………………………………………………………….92 Sampling…………………………………………………………………...92 Participants’ Selection….………………………………………………….93 Entry to the Field…………………………………………………………..94 ix Data Collection and Transcription…………………………………..…….94 Interviews………………………………………………...…….95